Neurodegenerative diseases are debilitating disorders that feature progressive and selective loss of function or structure of anatomically or physiologically associated neuronal systems. Both chronic and acute neurodegenerative diseases are associated with high morbidity and mortality along with the death of neurons in different areas of the brain; moreover, there are few or no effective curative therapy options for treating these disorders. There is an urgent need to diagnose neurodegenerative disease as early as possible, and to distinguish between different disorders with overlapping symptoms that will help to decide the best clinical treatment. Recently, in neurodegenerative disease research, fluorescent-probe-mediated biomarker visualization techniques have been gaining increasing attention for the early diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases. A survey of fluorescent probes for sensing and imaging biomarkers of neurodegenerative diseases is provided. These imaging probes are categorized based on the different potential biomarkers of various neurodegenerative diseases, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Guides to develop new sensing strategies, recognition mechanisms, as well as the ideal features to further improve neurodegenerative disease fluorescence imaging are also explored.

Fluorescent Diagnostic Probes in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Fluorescence switch of gold nanoclusters stabilized with bovine serum albumin for efficient and sensitive detection of cysteine and copper ion in mice with Alzheimer's disease.

A novel and potential chemical sensor for effective monitoring of Fe(II) ion in corrosion systems of water samples

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with dual intrinsic antibacterial and antioxidative functions have emerged as promising choice to cure infected wound. However, the most widely applied approach to endow AMPs with antioxidative function is to combine with antioxidative moieties, which may affect the spatial structure and physiological stability of AMPs. Herein, a new type of AMPs with inherent desired stability, antibacterial activity, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging is developed to effectively heal the infected wound. This formulation is in situ formed at wound site by tyrosinase‐triggered oxidation and self‐assembly of lyophilized antimicrobial peptide Trp‐Arg‐Trp‐Arg‐Trp‐Tyr, providing enhanced stability and a fourfold and sevenfold increasement in antibacterial efficiency against E. coli and S. aureus compared to peptide monomers. The antimicrobial peptide is first oxidized and then assembled into nanoparticles. The melanin‐like structure has been demonstrated with efficient antioxidant properties, and the experimental data show that peptide nanoparticles to scavenge superoxide radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and H2O2. In vivo experiments confirmed that peptide nanoparticles effectively heal infected wounds and obviously reduce ROS. Overall, the research provides a new approach to formulating antimicrobial peptides to treat wound with high healing efficiency.

In Situ Enzyme‐Induced Self‐Assembly of Antimicrobial‐Antioxidative Peptides to Promote Wound Healing

The interest in using gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) as imaging probes is growing, covering wide ranges of applications. The stabilization of AuNCs with protein ligands enhances their biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. This is due to the biocompatibility, water solubility and bioactivity of proteins. Different factors can control the optical properties of AuNCs such as protein size, amino acids content and conformational structure. Controlling the synthesis conditions can result in tuning the AuNCs excitation, emission, fluorescence intensity and physicochemical properties to fulfill different applications. NIR-emitting protein-stabilized AuNCs are promising as imaging agents for targeting and visualization of cancer in vitro and in vivo. They are promising to be included as an important part of multifunctional theranostic nanosystems, due to their potential dual functions as imaging and photosensitizing agent for photodynamic therapy. Additionally, the protein around AuNCs represents a rich environment of active functional groups that are susceptible for conjugation with various biomolecules. Protein-AuNCs can act as fluorescent probes for rapid and selective analysis of different analytes in solution, cells or biological fluids. In conclusion, the variability of protein-AuNC applications can advance research in different biomedical and pharmaceutical fields.

Advances in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of protein-stabilized gold nanoclusters

Gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) stabilized with bovine serum albumin were utilized as a fluorescent probe for ferrous ion. The detection scheme is based on the quenching of the fluorescence of the modified AuNCs by hydroxyl radical (•OH) that is generated in the Fenton reaction between Fe(II) and H2O2. Fe(II) can be quantified in the 0.08 to 100 μM concentration range, and the limit of detection is as low as 24 nM. The method also displays good accuracy and high sensitivity when employed to the determination of Fe(II) in rat cerebrospinal fluids (CSFs). When applied to CSFs of a rat model of Alzheimer’s disease, it revealed enhanced levels of Fe(II) compared to a control, thereby showing the important physiological role of iron(II) in this disease.

Bovine serum albumin-stabilized gold nanoclusters as a fluorescent probe for determination of ferrous ion in cerebrospinal fluids via the Fenton reaction

Revealing the relationship between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and levels of protein phosphorylation is of great significance for understanding the pathogenesis of diseases. Although mass spectrometry is used as a classical method for protein phosphorylation analysis, there are still some challenges to realize in vivo protein phosphorylation recognition. Herein, we designed and prepared an metal-organic framework (MOF)-based fluorescent nanoprobe with Zr(IV) and boronate ester as an active center, which achieved simultaneous recognition of ROS and phosphorylation sites. The ROS unit was constructed by 1,8-naphthalimide and boronate ester as a fluorophore and a recognition group, respectively. The specific interaction between Zr(IV) and a phosphate group was used to realize fluorescence imaging of phosphorylation sites. Using the advantages of two-photon property of the ROS recognition unit, the nanoprobe can effectively reduce the background fluorescence and thus improve the imaging sensitivity. Finally, the MOF-based nanoprobe was successfully applied to reveal the relationship between ROS and levels of phosphorylation in pneumonia mice, which illustrated that the ROS and phosphorylation levels in the process of pulmonary inflammation were obviously higher than those of the normal mice. This work provides feasible fluorescence tools that have important significance for revealing pathogenesis of diseases.

Elucidating the Relationship between ROS and Protein Phosphorylation through In Situ Fluorescence Imaging in the Pneumonia Mice.

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Bovine serum albumin-stabilized gold nanoclusters as a fluorescent probe for determination of ferrous ion in cerebrospinal fluids via the Fenton reaction

Elucidating the Relationship between ROS and Protein Phosphorylation through In Situ Fluorescence Imaging in the Pneumonia Mice.