This chapter reviews the temporal aspects of music perception and cognition. This topic has quite a history as a research topic, covered extensively by two chapters by Paul Fraisse and Eric F. Clarke in the first and second edition of this volume, respectively. However, this chapter focuses primarily on the developments in the past ten years. More precisely, it gives an overview of rhythm, meter, timing, and tempo from a music theoretical and cognitive perspective.

Structure and Interpretation of Rhythm in Music

THIS STUDY EXAMINES THE DISTRIBUTIONAL VIEW OF key-finding, which holds that listeners identify key by monitoring the distribution of pitch-classes in a piece and comparing this to an ideal distribution for each key. In our experiment, participants judged the key of melodies generated randomly from pitch-class distributions characteristic of tonal music. Slightly more than half of listeners9 judgments matched the generating keys, on both the untimed and the timed conditions. While this performance is much better than chance, it also indicates that the distributional view is far from a complete explanation of human key identification. No difference was found between participants with regard to absolute pitch ability, either in the speed or accuracy of their key judgments. Several key-finding models were tested on the melodies to see which yielded the best match to participants9 responses.

/pdf/pitch-class-distribution-and-the-identification-of-key-10116s081s.pdf

Pitch-Class Distribution and the Identification of Key

Liking and identifying emotionally expressive music: Age and gender differences

Music, mind and brain: The neuropsychology of music

Musical pitch-time relations were explored by investigating the effect of temporal variation on pitch perception. In Experiment 1, trained musicians heard a standard tone followed by a tonal context and then a comparison tone. They then performed one of two tasks. In the cognitive task, they indicated whether the comparison tone was in the key of the context. In the perceptual task, they judged whether the comparison tone was higher or lower than the standard tone. For both tasks, the comparison tone occurred early, on time, or late with respect to temporal expectancies established by the context. Temporal variation did not affect accuracy in either task. Experiment 2 used the perceptual task and varied the pitch structure by employing either a tonal or an atonal context. Temporal variation did not affect accuracy for tonal contexts, but did for atonal contexts. Experiment 3 replicated these results and controlled potential confounds. We argue that tonal contexts bias attention toward pitch and eliminate effects of temporal variation, whereas atonal contexts do not, thus fostering pitch-time interactions. Psychonomic Society, Inc.

/pdf/the-effect-of-task-and-pitch-structure-on-pitch-time-5e2lx6qyrg.pdf

The effect of task and pitch structure on pitch-time interactions in music.

We explored children's and adults' ability to perceive the emotional intent of sung performances by Canadian children who were 8-10 years old. Experiment 1 revealed that Canadian listeners were more accurate on happy renditions than on sad renditions of songs and on skilled ("good") than on unskilled ("ordinary") performances. Moreover, children's accuracy was greater than that of adults. In Experiment 2, Japanese children and adults with limited comprehension of spoken English successfully perceived the expressive intentions of Canadian children, but they were more accurate on sad renditions than on happy renditions. Japanese children performed better than adults, but only on the sad renditions. Moreover, the accuracy of Japanese children and adults was greater for skilled than for unskilled singers, but only on happy renditions. Finally, expressive cues in children's sung performances were predictive of accuracy regardless of the age or the cultural back- ground of listeners (Experiment 3).

https://utm.utoronto.ca/infant-child-centre/sites/files/infant-child-centre/public/shared/sandra-trehub/Japanese_2004.pdf

Perceiving emotion in children's songs across age and culture1

The interplay between metrical and tonal organization in melody perception was investigated. Ten musicians listened to five variations of excerpts from each of 12 melodies and judged the keys and rhythms. Original-condition trials retained the original temporal and pitch patterns of the melodies. Either the temporal or the pitch pattern was shifted in phase by one or two notes and recombined with the other pattern to create the temporal-shift and the pitch-shift conditions. The results showed that the listeners’ key interpretation varied between the temporal-shift conditions, but their metrical interpretation did not vary between the pitch-shift conditions. These results suggest that the metrical organization was not as influenced by the pitch shifts as the tonal organization was influenced by the temporal shifts. In the process of melody perception, tonal organization is executed using the predictive output of metrical organization.

Integration of metrical and tonal organization in melody perception1

We constructed a computational model that predicted a plausible key and the degree of tonality for any given melody sequence (pitch sequence), through a step-wise or incremental series of computations. In an experiment, 13 musically trained participants listened to 30 Bach fugue subjects and random tone sequences and were asked to identify plausible keys and rate the tonality of the keys. The incremental predictions of our computational model were compared to the behavior of the human participants, as well as to predictions derived from models developed by Krumhansl (1990) and Longuet-Higgins and Steedman (1971). Our computational model provided the best-fitting cognitive model of the process of participants’ tonal organization in melody perception.

Cognitive modeling of key interpretation in melody perception1

In a dichotic listening task using simultaneous pairs of spoken items, a subject appears to be unable to divide his attention completely between both channels (between the two ears or two different types of verbal materials, as the case may be). If the presentation rate of such dichotic pairs is relatively fast, faster than one pair (one item to each ear) per sec, the most efficient strategy for free recall appears to be a\"channel by channel\" report mode, not a\"pair by pair\" report mode (Broadbent, 1954; Brydcn, 1962). Some recent experimental results suggest that this\"channel by channel\" report mode might be achieved by the \"attentional\" process rather than by the

Processing of attended and unattended verbal materials in dichotic listening

Cognition and emotion in music

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