The new scenario framework facilitates the coupling of multiple socioeconomic reference pathways with climate model products using the representative concentration pathways. This will allow for improved assessment of climate impacts, adaptation and mitigation. Assumptions about climate policy play a major role in linking socioeconomic futures with forcing and climate outcomes. The paper presents the concept of shared climate policy assumptions as an important element of the new scenario framework. Shared climate policy assumptions capture key policy attributes such as the goals, instruments and obstacles of mitigation and adaptation measures, and introduce an important additional dimension to the scenario matrix architecture. They can be used to improve the comparability of scenarios in the scenario matrix. Shared climate policy assumptions should be designed to be policy relevant, and as a set to be broad enough to allow a comprehensive exploration of the climate change scenario space.

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A new scenario framework for climate change research : the concept of shared climate policy assumptions

Infrastructure worldwide has suffered from chronic under-investment for decades and currently makes up more than 60% of greenhouse gas emissions. A deep transformation of existing infrastructure systems is needed for both climate and development, one that includes systemic conceptual and behavioral changes in the ways in which we manage and govern our societies and economies. This report is a joint effort by the OECD, UN Environment and the World Bank Group, supported by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. It focuses on how governments can move beyond the current incremental approach to climate action and more effectively align financial flows with climate and development priorities. The report explores six key transformative areas that will be critical to align financial flows with low-emission and resilient societies (planning, innovation, public budgeting, financial systems, development finance, and cities) and looks at how rapid socio-economic and technological developments, such as digitalization, can open new pathways to low-emission, resilient futures.

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Financing Climate Futures

Since the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990, the push for modern mass schooling has become a primary focus of national education policymakers and researchers around the world. The EFA declaration that grew out of this conference served as a culmination of a century-long movement to transform existing national educational systems into the most comprehensive mass system of schooling ever devised. Comparative education researchers have been studying both the promises and the challenges surrounding EFA for decades, but in comparative education research literature there is still neither consensus on the impact that EFA has nor clearly identified global trends in either EFA policymaking or policy implementation. It seems that for every promise that EFA brings, there is an accompanying challenge.It is this struggle between the global promises and the national challenges that this volume of "International Perspectives on Education and Society" seeks to identify and explain. Chapters range from critical syntheses of EFA policymaking or policy implementation to original comparative education research on the impact that EFA has had in specific nations or across clusters of nations. It compares and contrasts the promises of EFA v. implementation of policy. The international contributions ensure global coverage of content. It is part of the "International Perspectives on Education and Society" series.

Education for all.

児童の権利に関する条約 = Convention on the rights of the child

Decarbonising the world?s energy system, moving towards a resource efficient economy and providing energy access for all will require doubling existing investment levels to around USD 2 trillion a year or 2% of GDP. Governments understand that large sums of capital will be required, and many are also realising the need for further recourse to private capital as public finances have become strained in many developed countries. Simultaneously, banking sector provision of long-term finance has become tighter due deleveraging and new financial regulations. With their USD 71 trillion in assets, institutional investors potentially have an important role to play. Given the current low interest rate environment and weak economic growth prospects in many OECD countries, institutional investors are increasingly looking for real asset classes which can deliver steady, preferably inflation-linked, income streams with low correlations to the returns of other investments. Clean energy projects may combine these sought-after characteristics.
Yet – outside the major pension funds and insurance companies – institutional investor allocations to clean energy projects remain limited, particularly when it comes to the types of direct investment which can help close the financing gap. Reasons for institutional investor hesitancy include a lack of information and expertise when it comes to the type of direct infrastructure investment required to finance clean energy projects, and a potentially unsupportive regulatory backdrop. These problems are compounded by a lack of suitable investment vehicles providing the risk/return profile that institutional investors need to manage the risks specific to clean energy projects. There are many species of risk, including regulatory risk stemming from a lack of clarity in terms of environmental and climate policy, and retroactive changes to support mechanisms. Progress is being made – with investor groups coming together to use their scale and build their expertise in clean energy investment. From the public and private sectors, actions are underway to scale up green bond offerings, create risk-mitigating public finance mechanisms and co-investment funding structures. These initiatives need to be encouraged, carefully monitored, and expanded where successful.

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The Role of Institutional Investors in Financing Clean Energy

Developed countries have committed under the international negotiations to jointly mobilising USD 100 billion per year by 2020 for climate change mitigation and adaptation in developing countries. Yet consistent and comprehensive data to track this commitment are currently lacking. Such data will also help governments and the private sector understand how much and what type of climate finance is flowing today, so as to be able to evaluate progress and effectiveness of international climate finance flows. Estimates based on available data are highly uncertain and incomplete, highlighting several challenges in establishing a robust tracking system. A more political question is what should be the internationally agreed definition of "climate finance" or, absent agreement on that, what types of flows or activities might count towards the USD 100 billion? On the more technical side, challenges include clearly defining flows and sources of international climate finance, determining the cause and effect of flows, and establishing the boundaries of finance flowing towards climate change action. This paper considers what data are currently available to track climate finance, and demonstrates the complex nature of financial flows through examples across international and domestic as well as public and private flows. The examples highlight questions on how to count and track climate finance.

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Tracking Climate Finance

This working paper presents the results of the 2016 OECD-DAC Survey on amounts mobilised from the private sector in 2012-2015 by official development finance interventions, in particular in the form of guarantees, syndicated loans, shares in collective investment vehicles, direct investment in companies and credit lines. The results indicate that during 2012-2015 USD 81.1 billion was mobilised from the private sector, mainly through guarantees for which the amounts mobilised represented 44% of the total. They also show that most of the amounts mobilised supported projects in middle-income countries (77%), especially in Africa which was the main beneficiary region (30%).

Amounts Mobilised from the Private Sector by Official Development Finance Interventions: Guarantees, syndicated loans, shares in collective investment vehicles, direct investment in companies, credit lines

Developed countries have committed under the international negotiations to jointly mobilising USD 100 billion per year by 2020 for climate change mitigation and adaptation in developing countries. Yet consistent and comprehensive data to track this commitment are currently lacking. Such data will also help governments and the private sector understand how much and what type of climate finance is flowing today, so as to be able to evaluate progress and effectiveness of international climate finance flows. Estimates based on available data are highly uncertain and incomplete, highlighting several challenges in establishing a robust tracking system. A more political question is what should be the internationally agreed definition of “climate finance” or, absent agreement on that, what types of flows or activities might count towards the USD 100 billion? On the more technical side, challenges include clearly defining flows and sources of international climate finance, determining the cause and effect of flows, and establishing the boundaries of finance flowing towards climate change action. This paper considers what data are currently available to track climate finance, and demonstrates the complex nature of financial flows through examples across international and domestic as well as public and private flows. The examples highlight questions on how to count and track climate finance. Les pays developpes se sont engages dans le cadre de negociations internationales a mobiliser ensemble 100 milliards de dollars par an d’ici a 2020 au service de l’attenuation du changement climatique et de l’adaptation a ses effets dans les pays en developpement. Cependant, des donnees coherentes et detaillees permettant de suivre l’application de cet engagement font aujourd’hui defaut. Ces informations aideraient aussi les pouvoirs publics et le secteur prive a connaitre le volume et la nature des financements actuellement consacres au domaine du climat, ce qui leur permettrait d’evaluer les progres et l’efficacite des flux internationaux de financement climatique. Les estimations etablies a partir des donnees disponibles sont tres incertaines et incompletes, d’ou il ressort plusieurs problemes auxquels se heurte la mise en place d’un solide systeme de suivi. Une question de caractere plus politique est celle de savoir en quels termes il convient de definir d’un commun accord a l’echelon international le « financement climatique » ou, a defaut d’accord sur cette definition, quels types de flux ou d’activites pourraient entrer en ligne de compte dans ces 100 milliards de dollars. Sous un angle plus technique, la difficulte consiste notamment a definir precisement les flux et les sources de financement climatique international, a mettre en evidence les causes et les effets des flux, ainsi qu’a determiner les limites du financement de l’action pour le climat. Ce rapport examine quelles donnees sont aujourd’hui disponibles pour assurer un suivi du financement climatique, et fait apparaitre la complexite des flux financiers au travers d’exemples de flux internationaux et interieurs, ainsi que publics et prives. Ces exemples mettent en relief les questions que soulevent les modalites de comptabilite et de suivi du financement climatique.

Tracking Climate Finance: What and How?

This paper shows that development co-operation from emerging providers – i.e. countries beyond the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) – significantly increased in recent years, reaching 17% of total global development co-operation in 2014. It also presents a rough estimate, of USD 300 billion, of broader international co-operation by emerging providers and it sets out what types of instruments are used to provide this broader international co-operation.
Very little is known about broader international co-operation by emerging providers and the scarce information that is available on different countries cannot be compared. This paper concludes that more information on, and a global measure of, international co-operation for development are needed to enable developing countries to manage the external support they receive and to enable further analysis of the increasingly important role that emerging providers play in developing countries.

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Emerging providers’ international co-operation for development

This Working Paper presents the results of a Survey on Guarantees for Development carried out in the context of the OECD DAC work to modernise statistics on external development finance post 2015. No comprehensive and internationally comparable data on guarantees for development and the volume of finance mobilised by them exist at present. This Survey aimed to fill this information gap by estimating the volume of private sector flows to developing countries mobilised by guarantee schemes. Guarantees for development purposes have mobilised over USD 15 billion of private sector flows to/in developing countries over the period of study (2009-11). This report analyses the data from the Survey (e.g. by sector and by country), includes a reflection on how the amount mobilised by guarantees can be captured at an international level and comments on the leverage ratio as a measure of efficiency of development finance.

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Guarantees for Development

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