An MRI time course of 512 echo-planar images (EPI) in resting human brain obtained every 250 ms reveals fluctuations in signal intensity in each pixel that have a physiologic origin. Regions of the sensorimotor cortex that were activated secondary to hand movement were identified using functional MRI methodology (FMRI). Time courses of low frequency (< 0.1 Hz) fluctuations in resting brain were observed to have a high degree of temporal correlation (P < 10(-3)) within these regions and also with time courses in several other regions that can be associated with motor function. It is concluded that correlation of low frequency fluctuations, which may arise from fluctuations in blood oxygenation or flow, is a manifestation of functional connectivity of the brain.

Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI.

Affect is basic to many if not all psychological phenomena. This article examines 2 of the most fundamental properties of affective experience--valence and arousal--asking how they are related to each other on a moment to moment basis. Over the past century, 6 distinct types of relations have been suggested or implicitly presupposed in the literature. We critically review the available evidence for each proposal and argue that the evidence does not provide a conclusive answer. Next, we use statistical modeling to verify the different proposals in 8 data sets (with Ns ranging from 80 to 1,417) where participants reported their affective experiences in response to experimental stimuli in laboratory settings or as momentary or remembered in natural settings. We formulate 3 key conclusions about the relation between valence and arousal: (a) on average, there is a weak but consistent V-shaped relation of arousal as a function of valence, but (b) there is large variation at the individual level, so that (c) valence and arousal can in principle show a variety of relations depending on person or circumstances. This casts doubt on the existence of a static, lawful relation between valence and arousal. The meaningfulness of the observed individual differences is supported by their personality and cultural correlates. The malleability and individual differences found in the structure of affect must be taken into account when studying affect and its role in other psychological phenomena.

The relation between valence and arousal in subjective experience.

The affect-as-information framework posits that affect is embodied information about value and importance. The valence dimension of affect provides evaluative information about stimulus objects, which plays a role in judgment and decisionmaking. Affect can also provide evaluative information about one's own cognitions and response inclinations, information that guides thinking and reasoning. In particular, positive affect often promotes, and negative affect inhibits, accessible responses or dominant modes of thinking. Affect thus moderates many of the textbook phenomena in cognitive psychology. In the current review, we suggest additionally that the arousal dimension of affect amplifies reactions, leading to intensified evaluations, increased reliance on particular styles of learning, and enhanced long-term memory for events. We conclude that whereas valenced affective cues serve as information about value, the arousal dimension provides information about urgency or importance.

/pdf/affective-arousal-as-information-how-affective-arousal-u0rt2l1gmo.pdf

Affective Arousal as Information: How Affective Arousal Influences Judgments, Learning, and Memory

Purpose – Researchers agree that the choice of brand name for a product can alter the consumers ' judgment about the product and their purchase decision-making process. With competition getting fiercer and product quality becoming more homogenous, a “better” brand name can be decisive in product choice if the consumers compare several products. The purpose of this research is to offer new physiological insights about how brand names are processed in the consumer ' s brain in order to identify potential determinants of “better” brand names. Design/methodology/approach – Using valence and activation ratings, reaction time, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), the authors show the interaction of key brand name dimensions with the consumer purchase decision-making process, as well as the neurophysiological basis of consumer preference for certain types of brand names. Findings – The authors ' research shows that it has a positive effect on consumer choice to include in the brand name hints at the...

pdf/better-branding-brand-names-can-influence-consumer-choice-34g2xhznna.pdf

Better branding: brand names can influence consumer choice

Introduction In a typical e-learning and computer-based learning environment, learners are confronted with information presented in the format of text, narration, animation, and graphics. Hence, learners engage in the cognitive process known as multimedia learning (Mayer, 2008). The cognitive process of multimedia learning describes an information processing in which learners select relevant visual and verbal materials, organize these visual and verbal mental representations in coherent structures in working memory, and integrate the visual and the verbal mental representations with one another and with prior knowledge (Mayer, 2008). Complementing this process model, the cognitive load theory (CLT) provides a capacity model of multimedia learning (Kalyuga, 2011). The CLT model highlights the inherent limitation of working memory and describes three types of cognitive load: intrinsic, germane, and extraneous. Intrinsic cognitive load is the inherent level of difficulty associated with a specific instructional topic. Germane load defines the amount of mental effort invested by the learner in comprehending the materials, whereas extraneous load describes processing demands of information that are not directly related to the learning task (Kalyuga, 2011). Multimedia learning design has been primarily based on cognitive models such as dual-coding theory and cognitive load theory (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). However, Moreno's (2006) Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media extended the framework by integrating emotional and motivational factors in multimedia learning design. According to this framework, the process of multimedia learning is mediated by emotional factors that influence learner's willingness to invest mental effort to the learning process (Park et al., 2015). In addition, the framework assumes that multimedia learning process is mediated by learner's metacognition such as cognitive styles and abilities (Moreno & Duran, 2004; Park et al., 2015). Hence, a learner's working memory, motivation (i.e., germane load), and cognitive style is affected by his or her emotional states. Recent studies have attempted to validate the importance of emotional factors in the design of multimedia learning environments. In a seminal work by Um et al. (2012), it was demonstrated that learners who were induced with positive mood outperformed learners who were induced with neutral mood in comprehension and transfer tests. The researchers also showed that positive emotion can be transferred to learners through interface designs, such as anthropomorphism and bright colors. In the attempt to replicate these findings, Plass et al. (2014) tested the effects of color and anthropomorphism on learners' emotion, motivational and cognitive outcomes. It was shown that positive emotional design in multimedia learning environments enhanced positive emotion, motivation, and comprehension. Moreover, positive emotional design in a multimedia interface significantly reduced learners' perception of task difficulty. However, the study failed to replicate the facilitating effect of positive emotional design on transfer scores. Mayer and Estrella (2014) tested the effects of positive emotional design in multimedia learning environments. Mirroring earlier findings (Plass et al., 2014; Um et al., 2012;), results from their experiments showed that positive emotional design via anthropomorphism and appealing colors enhanced retention scores. In an eye tracking experiment, Park et al. (2015) revealed that learners who were induced with positive mood had higher learning outcomes in comprehension and transfer tests and showed longer fixation durations on the relevant information of the multimedia learning environment than learners who were induced with neutral mood. Their findings empirically indicate that emotional state influences cognitive and attentional processing in multimedia learning. Moods in multimedia learning environment There are different constructs when defining "emotion" (Ekkekakis, 2012; Russell, 2003). …

The Effects of Positive and Negative Mood on Cognition and Motivation in Multimedia Learning Environment.

Participants rated 84 statements adapted from Velten's original mood induction statements—designed to induce positive and negative mood—on two dimensions of emotion (valence and arousal), using the Self Assessment Manikin (SAM) (P. J. Lang, M. M. Bradley, & B. N. Cuthbert, 1999). Fifty-two of these Velten positive, negative, and neutral statements yielded SAM valence ratings that were consistent with Velten's previous valence designation (E. Velten, 1968). Reliability analyses for the positive, negative, and neutral statements indicated a high level of internal consistency in the three statement groups. Arousal and valence ratings of the statements were positively correlated. Related issues concerning differences in rating verbal versus visual emotional stimuli and recommendations for future work to improve the validity of Velten's mood induction statements are addressed.

Valence and Arousal Ratings for Velten Mood Induction Statements

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Valence and Arousal Ratings for Velten Mood Induction Statements