A wildland fire-behavior module, named WRF-Fire, was integrated into the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) public domain numerical weather prediction model. The fire module is a surface fire-behavior model that is two-way coupled with the atmospheric model. Near-surface winds from the atmospheric model are interpolated to a finer fire grid and are used, with fuel properties and local terrain gradients, to determine the fire’s spread rate and direction. Fuel consumption releases sensible and latent heat fluxes into the atmospheric model’s lowest layers, driving boundary layer circulations. The atmospheric model, configured in turbulence-resolving large-eddy-simulation mode, was used to explore the sensitivity of simulated fire characteristics such as perimeter shape, fire intensity, and spread rate to external factors known to influence fires, such as fuel characteristics and wind speed, and to explain how these external parameters affect the overall fire properties. Through the use of theoret...

/pdf/wrf-fire-coupled-weather-wildland-fire-modeling-with-the-31hztufi38.pdf

WRF-Fire: Coupled Weather–Wildland Fire Modeling with the Weather Research and Forecasting Model

. We describe the physical model, numerical algorithms, and software structure of a model consisting of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, coupled with the fire-spread model (SFIRE) module. In every time step, the fire model inputs the surface wind, which drives the fire, and outputs the heat flux from the fire into the atmosphere, which in turn influences the atmosphere. SFIRE is implemented by the level set method, which allows a submesh representation of the burning region and a flexible implementation of various kinds of ignition. The coupled model is capable of running on a cluster faster than real time even with fine resolution in dekameters. It is available as a part of the Open Wildland Fire Modeling (OpenWFM) environment at http://openwfm.org , which contains also utilities for visualization, diagnostics, and data processing, including an extended version of the WRF Preprocessing System (WPS). The SFIRE code with a subset of the features is distributed with WRF 3.3 as WRF-Fire.

/pdf/coupled-atmosphere-wildland-fire-modeling-with-wrf-3-3-and-2t7zpt6op0.pdf

Coupled atmosphere-wildland fire modeling with WRF 3.3 and SFIRE 2011

To understand ecological phenomena, it is necessary to observe their behaviour across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Since this need was first highlighted in the 1980s, technology has opened previously inaccessible scales to observation. To help to determine whether there have been corresponding changes in the scales observed by modern ecologists, we analysed the resolution, extent, interval and duration of observations (excluding experiments) in 348 studies that have been published between 2004 and 2014. We found that observational scales were generally narrow, because ecologists still primarily use conventional field techniques. In the spatial domain, most observations had resolutions ≤1 m2 and extents ≤10,000 ha. In the temporal domain, most observations were either unreplicated or infrequently repeated (>1 month interval) and ≤1 year in duration. Compared with studies conducted before 2004, observational durations and resolutions appear largely unchanged, but intervals have become finer and extents larger. We also found a large gulf between the scales at which phenomena are actually observed and the scales those observations ostensibly represent, raising concerns about observational comprehensiveness. Furthermore, most studies did not clearly report scale, suggesting that it remains a minor concern. Ecologists can better understand the scales represented by observations by incorporating autocorrelation measures, while journals can promote attentiveness to scale by implementing scale-reporting standards.

The spatial and temporal domains of modern ecology

When targeting small amplitude surface deformation, using repeat orbit Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) observations can be plagued by propagation delays, some of which correlate with topographic variations These topographically-correlated delays result from temporal variations in vertical stratification of the troposphere An approximate model assuming a linear relationship between topography and interferometric phase has been used to correct observations with success in a few studies Here, we present a robust approach to estimating the transfer function, K, between topography and phase that is relatively insensitive to confounding processes (earthquake deformation, phase ramps from orbital errors, tidal loading, etc) Our approach takes advantage of a multiscale perspective by using a band-pass decomposition of both topography and observed phase This decomposition into several spatial scales allows us to determine the bands wherein correlation between topography and phase is significant and stable When possible, our approach also takes advantage of any inherent redundancy provided by multiple interferograms constructed with common scenes We define a unique set of component time intervals for a given suite of interferometric pairs We estimate an internally consistent transfer function for each component time interval, which can then be recombined to correct any arbitrary interferometric pair We demonstrate our approach on a synthetic example and on data from two locations: Long Valley Caldera, California, which experienced prolonged periods of surface deformation from pressurization of a deep magma chamber, and one coseismic interferogram from the 2007 Mw 78 Tocapilla earthquake in northern Chile In both examples, the corrected interferograms show improvements in regions of high relief, independent of whether or not we pre-correct the data for a source model We believe that most of the remaining signals are predominately due to heterogeneous water vapor distribution that requires more sophisticated correction methods than those described here

/pdf/a-multiscale-approach-to-estimating-topographically-7fbh4m9enc.pdf

A multiscale approach to estimating topographically correlated propagation delays in radar interferograms

The National Wildfire Coordinating Group definition of extreme fire behavior (EFB) indicates a level of fire behavior characteristics that ordinarily precludes methods of direct control action. One or more of the following is usually involved: high rate of spread, prolific crowning/spotting, presence of fire whirls, and strong convection column. Predictability is difficult because such fires often exercise some degree of influence on their environment and behave erratically, sometimes dangerously. Alternate terms include “blow up” and “fire storm.” Fire managers examining fires over the last 100 years have come to understand many of the factors necessary for EFB development. This work produced guidelines included in current firefighter training, which presents the current methods of predicting EFB by using the crown fire model, which is based on the environmental influences of weather, fuels, and topography. Current training does not include the full extent of scientific understanding. Material in current training programs is also not the most recent scientific knowledge. National Fire Plan funds have sponsored newer research related to wind profiles’ influence on fire behavior, plume growth, crown fires, fire dynamics in live fuels, and conditions associated with vortex development. Of significant concern is that characteristic features of EFB depend on conditions undetectable on the ground, relying fundamentally on invisible properties such as wind shear or atmospheric stability.Obviously no one completely understands all the factors contributing to EFB because of gaps in our knowledge. These gaps, as well as the limitations as to when various models or indices apply should be noted to avoid application where they are not appropriate or warranted. This synthesis will serve as a summary of existing extreme fire behavior knowledge for use by fire managers, firefighters, and fire researchers.The objective of this project is to synthesize existing EFB knowledge in a way that connects the weather, fuel, and topographic factors that contribute to development of EFB. This synthesis will focus on the state of the science, but will also consider how that science is currently presented to the fire management community, including incident commanders, fire behavior analysts, incident meteorologists, National Weather Service office forecasters, and firefighters. It will seek to clearly delineate the known, the unknown, and areas of research with the greatest potential impact on firefighter protection.

/pdf/synthesis-of-knowledge-of-extreme-fire-behavior-volume-i-for-u54494ic6a.pdf

Synthesis of knowledge of extreme fire behavior : volume I for fire managers /

The first comprehensive set of in situ measurements of turbulence and dynamics in an experimental wildland grass fire should help improve fire models.

https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/journals/pnw_2007_clements001.pdf

Observing the Dynamics of Wildland Grass Fires: FireFlux—A Field Validation Experiment

The climatology of high wind events in the Owens Valley, California, a deep valley located just east of the southern Sierra Nevada, is described using data from six automated weather stations distributed along the valley axis in combination with the North American Regional Reanalysis dataset. Potential mechanisms for the development of strong winds in the valley are examined. Contrary to the common belief that strong winds in the Owens Valley are westerly downslope windstorms that develop on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, strong westerly winds are rare in the valley. Instead, strong winds are highly bidirectional, blowing either up (northward) or down (southward) the valley axis. High wind events are most frequent in spring and early fall and they occur more often during daytime than during nighttime, with a peak frequency in the afternoon. Unlike thermally driven valley winds that blow up valley during daytime and down valley during nighttime, strong winds may blow in either direction regardless of the time of the day. The southerly up-valley winds appear most often in the afternoon, a time when there is a weak minimum of northerly down-valley winds, indicating that strong wind events are modulated by local along-valley thermal forcing. Several mechanisms, including downward momentum transfer, forced channeling, and pressure-driven channeling all play a role in the development of southerly high wind events. These events are typically accompanied by strong south-southwesterly synoptic winds ahead of an upper-level trough off the California coast. The northerly high wind events, which typically occur when winds aloft are from the northwest ahead of an approaching upper-level ridge, are predominantly caused by the passage of a cold front when fast-moving cold air behind the surface front undercuts and displaces the warmer air in the valley. Forced channeling by the sidewalls of the relatively narrow valley aligns the wind direction with the valley axis and enhances the wind speeds.

/pdf/climatology-of-high-wind-events-in-the-owens-valley-i4gijaob32.pdf

Climatology of high wind events in the Owens Valley, California

This paper investigates the formation mechanisms for a local wind phenomenon known as Washoe Zephyr that occurs frequently in the lee of the Sierra Nevada. Unlike the typical thermally driven slope flows with upslope wind during daytime and downslope at night, the Washoe Zephyr winds blow down the lee slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the afternoon against the local pressure gradient. Long-term hourly surface wind data from several stations on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada and rawinsonde sounding data in the region are analyzed and numerical simulations are performed to test the suggested hypotheses on the formation mechanisms for this interesting phenomenon. The results from surface and upper-air climate data analyses and numerical modeling indicate that the Washoe Zephyr is primarily a result of a regional-scale pressure gradient that develops because of asymmetric heating of the atmosphere between the western side of the Sierra Nevada and the elevated, semiarid central Nevada and Great B...

/pdf/forcing-mechanisms-for-washoe-zephyr-a-daytime-downslope-10dxxdarw5.pdf

Forcing Mechanisms for Washoe Zephyr—A Daytime Downslope Wind System in the Lee of the Sierra Nevada

This paper investigates the formation mechanisms for a local wind phenomenon known as Washoe Zephyr that occurs frequently in the lee of the Sierra Nevada. Unlike the typical thermally driven slope flows with upslope wind during daytime and downslope at night, the Washoe Zephyr winds blow down the lee slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the afternoon against the local pressure gradient. Long-term hourly surface wind data from several stations on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada and rawinsonde sounding data in the region are analyzed and numerical simulations are performed to test the suggested hypotheses on the formation mechanisms for this interesting phenomenon. The results from surface and upper-air climate data analyses and numerical modeling indicate that the Washoe Zephyr is primarily a result of a regional-scale pressure gradient that develops because of asymmetric heating of the atmosphere between the western side of the Sierra Nevada and the elevated, semiarid central Nevada and Great Basin on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada. The frequent influence of the Pacific high on California in the summer season helps to enhance this pressure gradient and therefore strengthen the flow. Westerly synoptic-scale winds over the Sierra Nevada and the associated downward momentum transfer are not necessary for its development, but strong westerly winds aloft work in concert with the regional-scale pressure gradient to produce the strongest Washoe Zephyr events.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE Forcing Mechanisms for Washoe Zephyr—A Daytime Downslope Wind System in the Lee of the Sierra Nevada

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Observing the Dynamics of Wildland Grass Fires: FireFlux—A Field Validation Experiment

Climatology of high wind events in the Owens Valley, California

Forcing Mechanisms for Washoe Zephyr—A Daytime Downslope Wind System in the Lee of the Sierra Nevada

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE Forcing Mechanisms for Washoe Zephyr—A Daytime Downslope Wind System in the Lee of the Sierra Nevada