Summary
This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Robinia pseudoacacia L. that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, and history and conservation.
Robinia pseudoacacia, false acacia or black locust, is a deciduous, broad-leaved tree native to North America. The medium-sized, fast-growing tree is armed with spines, and extensively suckering. It has become naturalized in grassland, semi-natural woodlands and urban habitats. The tree is common in the south of the British Isles and in many other regions of Europe.
Robinia pseudoacacia is a light-demanding pioneer species, which occurs primarily in disturbed sites on fertile to poor soils. The tree does not tolerate wet or compacted soils. In contrast to its native range, where it rapidly colonizes forest gaps and is replaced after 15–30 years by more competitive tree species, populations in the secondary range can persist for a longer time, probably due to release from natural enemies.
Robinia pseudoacacia reproduces sexually, and asexually by underground runners. Disturbance favours clonal growth and leads to an increase in the number of ramets. Mechanical stem damage and fires also lead to increased clonal recruitment.
The tree benefits from di-nitrogen fixation associated with symbiotic rhizobia in root nodules. Estimated symbiotic nitrogen fixation rates range widely from 23 to 300 kg ha−1 year−1. The nitrogen becomes available to other plants mainly by the rapid decay of nitrogen-rich leaves.
Robinia pseudoacacia is host to a wide range of fungi both in the native and introduced ranges. Megaherbivores are of minor significance in Europe but browsing by ungulates occurs in the native range. Among insects, the North American black locust gall midge (Obolodiplosis robiniae) is specific to Robinia and is spreading rapidly throughout Europe.
In parts of Europe, Robinia pseudoacacia is considered an invasive non-indigenous plant and the tree is controlled. Negative impacts include shading and changes of soil conditions as a result of nitrogen fixation.

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1365-2745.12162

Biological Flora of the British Isles: Robinia pseudoacacia

Cities, due to the presence of ports and airports and the high diversity of trees in streets, parks, and gardens, may play an important role for the introduction of invasive forest pests. We hypothesize that areas of urban forest facilitate the establishment of non-native forest pests. Based on scientific literature and a pan-European database on non-native species feeding on woody plants, we analysed where the first detections occurred in European countries. We collected site data for 137 first detections in Europe and 508 first European country-specific records. We also estimated the percentage of tree cover and suitable habitat (green areas with trees) in buffers around detection points. The large majority of first records (89% for first record in Europe and 88% for first records in a European country) were found in cities or suburban areas. Only 7% of the cases were in forests far from cities. The probability of occurrence decreased sharply with distance from the city. The probability to be detected in urban areas was higher for sap feeders, gall makers, and seed or fruit feeders (>90%) than for bark and wood borers (81%). Detection sites in cities were highly diverse, including public parks, street trees, university campus, arboreta, zoos, and botanical gardens. The average proportion of suitable habitat was less than 10% in urban areas where the species were detected. Further, more than 72% of the cases occurred in sites with less than 20% of tree cover. Hotspots of first detection were identified along the coastal regions of the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and near industrial areas of central Europe. We conclude that urban trees are main facilitators for the establishment of non-native forest pests, and that cities should thus be intensely surveyed. Moreover, as urban areas are highly populated, the involvement of citizens is highly recommended.

Urban trees facilitate the establishment of non-native forest insects

Addressing geographical bias: A review of Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust) in the Southern Hemisphere

Combining entomopathogenic fungi and parasitoids to control the green peach aphid Myzus persicae

Understanding the effects of anthropogenic global warming (AGW) on species interactions is essential for predicting community responses to climate change. However, while effects of AGW on resource?consumer interactions at the first and second trophic level have been well studied, little is known about effects on interactions at higher trophic levels at the terminal end of food chains (e.g. in the third and fourth trophic levels). Here, we examined the effects of temperature variability by simulating heatwaves on functional responses of two species at the fourth trophic level (hyperparasitoids) that parasitize host species at the third trophic level (parasitoid cocoons). We found that host cocoons developed faster under simulated heatwave conditions, decreasing the temporal window of susceptibility of the host cocoons to parasitism by the two hyperparasitoids, and consequently parasitism declined with temperature. However, the effects of a simulated heatwave markedly differed among the two hyperparasitoid species; temperature and host quality had a much stronger effect on early reproduction in the less fecund hyperparasitoid Gelis agilis, than in the more fecund species Acrolyta nens. Our results suggest that exposure to heatwaves, that are expected to increase in frequency, will affect the ability of species at higher trophic levels to exploit transient resources whose suitability is temperature-dependent. In turn, the observed effects of AGW on the functional responses of the hyperparasitoids may disrupt trophic interactions and have profound impact on population dynamics and ecological processes. A plain language summary is available for this article.

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1365-2435.13277

Differential effects of climate warming on reproduction and functional responses on insects in the fourth trophic level

Parasitic Hymenoptera from the suprafamily Ichneumonoidea attacking the horse chestnut leafminer Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) were studied in southwest Slovakia during 2000 and 2001. The search for such species resulted in the determination of eight ichneumonid species, Gelis agilis (Fabricius), Itoplectis alternans (Gravenhorst), I. clavicornis (Thompson), I. maculator (Fabricius), Scambus annulatus (Kiss), S. brevicornis (Gravenhorst), Zatypota percontatoria (Muller), Adelognathus sp. and a braconid Colastes braconius Haliday. The most abundant species was S. annulatus. All these species recorded are polyphagous and often facultative hyperparasitoids, except C. braconius, which departs from this norm in not being hyperparasitic. The presence of more diversified native parasitoids and hyperparasitoids from the Ichneumonoidea predicate a slow successive adaptation of the parasitoid fauna to the invasive host, Cameraria ohridella.

Parasitic Ichneumonoidea on the horse chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) in Slovakia

For the first time during October 2006, the occurrence of Obolodiplosis robiniae (Haldeman 1847) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) was recorded on the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Slovakia. During 2007, field surveys were undertaken to determine the distribution of the species and the infestation ratio at different locations. One year after its first discovery, O. robiniae was found throughout southern Slovakia. The gall midge was observed in 148 out of 161 checked locations. The infestation ratio of single leaves varied from 4 to 100%. The infestation ratio of the black locust tree was evaluated during May–June, July–August, and September–October, and accounted for 15–39, 9–53, and 6–49%, respectively. The most frequent infestation ratio fluctuated from 10 to 30% (115 locations). The highest infestation was recorded during July–August. Greater infestation was prevalent in the larger settlements than it was in the countryside. The gall midge was also recorded on R. viscosa Vent. Although the results show that O. robiniae is nowadays an usual insect with high potential to become an important pest of ornamental black locust or biological control agent against weedy black locust in southern Slovakia, the species do not appear to have reached pest status until now.

The distribution of Obolodiplosis robiniae on black locust in Slovakia

The gall midge Obolodiplosis robiniae is a pest of black locust Robinia pseudoacacia. The species was recently introduced into Europe and it is nowadays a usual insect in Slovakia, where two-year field surveys were undertaken during 2007–2008. The main objective of this study was to determine the natural enemies attacking O. robiniae and estimate their influence on midge population, less than 3 years after its introduction. Eight parasitoids and bushcricket Tettigonia viridissima were responsible for midge regulation. The parasitoid complex was not typically that of an introduced species as it was predicted. Firstly, the midge was heavily influenced by a specialized parasitoid Platygaster robiniae, which was a predominant parasitoid and accounted for 98% of all specimens reared. Secondly, annual larval parasitism varied from 5.4 to 10.8%, though the late season average parasitism achieved 26.0% and often exceeded 40%. P. robiniae was also very efficient in exploiting galls and was capable of consistently regulating midge population. The surveys demonstrated that the average cumulative impact of natural enemies on the midge was substantial. Stably around 20% of attacked galls were recorded during the late summer. Bushcrickets were as efficient as parasitoids and played an important role at control, especially during lack of parasitoids. Greater impact of parasitoids was found in the larger settlements than it was in the countryside, when countertendency was valid for bushcrickets. There is an indication that O. robiniae parasitized by specialized parasitoid, and attacked by bushcrickets represents only a moderate risk for R. pseudoacacia or forest stands.

Impact of natural enemies on Obolodiplosis robiniae invasion

A study from 2002 documented the occurrence of natural enemies (parasitoid wasps, predatory fl ies, entomopathogenic fungi) associated with colonies of the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov, 1913) (Sternorrhyncha: Aphididae), in the spring barley fi elds in Slovakia. Parasitization by wasps was low (<5.5%) with Diaeretiella rapae (McIntosh, 1855) the dominant hymenopterous parasitoid (91% of emerging wasps). The remaining parasitoid guild comprised of Aphidius ervi Haliday, 1834 Aphidius rhopalosiphi DeStefani, 1902, Aphidius picipes (Nees, 1811), Ephedrus plagiator (Nees, 1811), Praon volucre (Haliday, 1833) (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) and two hyperparasites Asaphes suspensus (Nees, 1834) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and Lygocerus spp. (Hymenoptera: Ceraphronidae). Predaceous midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) were consistently found with densities ranging from 0.1 to 2.5 larvae per aphid colony. The most abundant predaceous midge was Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani, 1847), while Lestodiplosis sp. was recorded infrequently. Four syrphids, Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer, 1776), Melanostoma mellinum (L., 1758), Sphaerophoria rueppellii (Wiedemann, 1830), Sphaerophoria scripta (L., 1758) (Diptera: Syrphidae) and one pathogenic fungus, Pandora neoaphidis (Remaudiere et Hennebert) Humber, were recorded.

/pdf/natural-enemies-of-diuraphis-noxia-sternorrhyncha-aphididae-3h6jxvq0e8.pdf

Natural enemies of Diuraphis noxia (Sternorrhyncha: Aphididae) in Slovakia.

During 2003–2005 regular collections of horse chestnut leaves (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) were carried out to screen the parasitoid species associated with larvae and pupae of horse chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella Deschka et Dimic, 1986) at two different sites of SE Slovakia. Within the parasitoids reared, three species from the superfamily Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) were newly recorded for Slovakia.

First records of some Chalcidoidea species (Hymenoptera) parasiting on horse chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae), in Slovakia

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