This article reviews current literature examining associations between components of the family context and children and adolescents' emotion regulation (ER). The review is organized around a tripartite model of familial influence. Firstly, it is posited that children learn about ER through observational learning, modeling and social referencing. Secondly, parenting practices specifically related to emotion and emotion management affect ER. Thirdly, ER is affected by the emotional climate of the family via parenting style, the attachment relationship, family expressiveness and the marital relationship. The review ends with discussions regarding the ways in which child characteristics such as negative emotionality and gender affect ER, how socialization practices change as children develop into adolescents, and how parent characteristics such as mental health affect the socialization of ER.

The Role of the Family Context in the Development of Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation has emerged as a popular topic, but there is doubt about its viability as a scientific construct This article identifies conceptual and methodological challenges in this area of study and describes exemplar studies that provide a substantive basis for inferring emotion regulation On the basis of those studies, 4 methods are described that provide compelling evidence for emotion regulation: independent measurement of activated emotion and purported regulatory processes; analysis of temporal relations; measurement across contrasting conditions; and multiple, convergent measures By offering this perspective, this article aims to engage thoughtful debate and critical analysis, with the goal of increasing methodological rigor and advancing an understanding of emotion regulation as a scientific construct

Emotion Regulation as a Scientific Construct: Methodological Challenges and Directions for Child Development Research

Fear causes fleeing and thereby saves lives: this exemplifies a popular and common sense but increasingly untenable view that the direct causation of behavior is the primary function of emotion. Instead, the authors develop a theory of emotion as a feedback system whose influence on behavior is typically indirect. By providing feedback and stimulating retrospective appraisal of actions, conscious emotional states can promote learning and alter guidelines for future behavior. Behavior may also be chosen to pursue (or avoid) anticipated emotional outcomes. Rapid, automatic affective responses, in contrast to the full-blown conscious emotions, may inform cognition and behavioral choice and thereby help guide current behavior. The automatic affective responses may also remind the person of past emotional outcomes and provide useful guides as to what emotional outcomes may be anticipated in the present. To justify replacing the direct causation model with the feedback model, the authors review a large body of empirical findings.

How Emotion Shapes Behavior: Feedback, Anticipation, and Reflection, Rather Than Direct Causation

Resilience in Development: A Synthesis of Research across Five Decades

This study addresses the extent to which insecure and disorganized attachments increase risk for externalizing problems using meta-analysis. From 69 samples (N = 5,947), the association between insecurity and externalizing problems was significant, d = 0.31 (95% CI: 0.23, 0.40). Larger effects were found for boys (d = 0.35), clinical samples (d = 0.49), and from observation-based outcome assessments (d = 0.58). Larger effects were found for attachment assessments other than the Strange Situation. Overall, disorganized children appeared at elevated risk (d = 0.34, 95% CI: 0.18, 0.50), with weaker effects for avoidance (d = 0.12, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.21) and resistance (d = 0.11, 95% CI: −0.04, 0.26). The results are discussed in terms of the potential significance of attachment for mental health.

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The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: a meta-analytic study.

Emotion regulation strategies observed during an age 3 1/2 frustration task were examined in relation to (a) angry affect during the frustration task, (b) child and maternal characteristics at age 1 1/2, and (c) indices of self-control at age 6 in a sample of low-income boys (Ns varied between 189 and 310, depending on the assessment). Shifting attention away from sources of frustration and seeking information about situational constraints were associated with decreased anger. Secure attachment and positive maternal control correlated positively with effective regulatory strategy use. Individual differences in strategy use predicted self-control at school entry, but in specific rather than general ways: Reliance on attention-shifting strategies corresponded with low externalizing problems and high cooperation; reliance on information gathering corresponded with high assertiveness.

Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control.

Background: The purpose of the present study was to test components of Raine’s (2002) biosocial model, specifically the interactive effects of perinatal complications, rejecting parenting, and family adversity on the development of early-onset antisocial behavior (ASB). Boys’ internalizing problems were also tested to investigate the specificity of the model. Methods: Birth records in addition to longitudinal data were collected on 310 low-income boys followed from birth until 10 years of age. Results: Findings demonstrated support for a biosocial framework in predicting ASB but not internalizing problems. Family adversity, and to some extent rejecting parenting, consistently predicted youth outcome. Perinatal complications emerged as a predictor of ASB but only in the context of other family risk factors. According to maternal report, boys experiencing high levels of perinatal complications, rejecting parenting, and family adversity showed significantly higher levels of ASB than boys with lower levels of these risk factors. This finding was partially corroborated by youth self-report, such that boys experiencing high levels of perinatal complications and family adversity reported more antisocial activity than boys experiencing no risk or risk in only one domain. Conclusions: This study supports the specific prediction of ASB in middle childhood from a biosocial model. Findings also highlight the salience of a negative psychosocial environment on childhood maladjustment. Intervention efforts including parenting skills and coping strategies for mothers of children from multiple risk environments are advocated. Keywords: Perinatal complications, antisocial behavior, family adversity, high-risk sample. Abbreviations: ASB: antisocial behavior.

The influence of perinatal complications and environmental adversity on boys’ antisocial behavior

Despite the intuitive richness of family systems theory, relatively little research has sought to test the validity of constructs theorized to be critical in the development of children's adjustment. One such cornerstone of structural and strategic family therapy is the family hierarchy. The present study investigated both the development of hierarchical structure in families from infancy to late middle childhood and relations between strong hierarchical structure and children's conduct problems. Using structural equation modeling, direct pathways to low hierarchical structure were evident for early caregiving behavior and parent-child conflict, with indirect associations present for parental adjustment, marital functioning, negative child behavior, and ecological disadvantage. In turn, family hierarchies were associated with youth antisocial behavior, an effect that was moderated by ethnic and neighborhood context. The results are discussed in reference to family systems' theory and implications for prevention and intervention.

The development of family hierarchies and their relation to children's conduct problems

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Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control.

The influence of perinatal complications and environmental adversity on boys’ antisocial behavior

The development of family hierarchies and their relation to children's conduct problems