Sustainable plant-, algal-, and fungal-based alternative foods are required to feed the growing human population. The quality of such alternative foods depends not only on the nutrient content, but also on the amino acid composition and protein digestibility. The assessment of protein digestibility is typically considered at the level of ingredients, but these are blended and processed to formulate palatable foods. This review highlights the importance of nutritional quality in alternative foods by focusing on protein digestibility at the level of blends and formulated products. We consider the effects of processing on protein digestibility and the important role of the food matrix. Finally, we consider the colonic fermentation of undigested protein and the role of fiber in alternative foods. Few studies have investigated protein digestibility after the blending and processing of ingredients derived from alternative protein sources or compared protein digestibility between animal-based and alternative food products. We find that processing can increase or decrease the in vitro protein digestibility of alternative foods, or in some cases has no effect. The architecture of the food matrix after processing requires further investigation as a determinant of protein digestibility-related food quality. Furthermore, the mastication of food has a significant impact on its protein digestibility, but most in vitro models do not include this step. To promote the production of beneficial metabolites during colonic fermentation, undigested protein should be accompanied by dietary fiber, even if this partially compromises the digestibility of the protein. 

The nutritional quality of animal-alternative processed foods based on plant or microbial proteins and the role of the food matrix

Hybrid meat products are an excellent strategy to incorporate plant proteins into traditional meat formulations considering recent market trends focusing on the partial reduction in red meat content. In this work, we evaluated the effects of different concentrated plant proteins (soy, pea, fava bean, rice, and sunflower) in partially replacing meat in meat emulsion model systems. Soy, pea, and sunflower proteins showed great compatibility with the meat matrix, giving excellent emulsion stability and a cohesive protein network with good fat distribution. Otherwise, adding rice and fava bean proteins resulted in poor emulsion stability. Color parameters were affected by the intrinsic color of plant proteins and due to the reduction in myoglobin content. Both viscoelastic moduli, G′ and G″ decreased with the incorporation of plant proteins, especially for rice and fava bean. The temperature sweep showed that myosin denaturation was the dominant effect on the G′ increase. The water mobility was affected by plant proteins and the proportion between immobilized and intermyofibrillar water was quite different among treatments, especially those with fava bean and rice proteins. In vitro protein digestibility was lower for hybrid meat emulsion elaborated with rice protein. It is concluded that soy, pea, and mainly sunflower proteins have suitable compatibility with the meat matrix in emulsified products.

https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/11/21/3311/pdf?version=1666847613

Understanding the Performance of Plant Protein Concentrates as Partial Meat Substitutes in Hybrid Meat Emulsions

This study investigated the effects of including 5, 10 or 15% of oat bran, wheat bran, or combination of both on the physicochemical properties of extruded pea protein-based meat analogues. The extrudates were analysed for colour, textural properties, microstructure, protein-protein interactions and protein solubility. In vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) was analysed from intermediate and end products. IVPD varied between 48 and 91% and was highest in PI flour and lowest in PI extrudate. Higher tensile and cutting strengths were observed in one direction which is a typical feature of meat fibres. Bran inclusion mainly decreased both tensile (by 2–51%) and cutting (by 12–50%) strengths indicating weaker structures. Both non-covalent and disulphide bonds were observed to have a role in the structural stabilisation of meat analogues. The inclusion of brans did not have significant effects on protein-protein interactions or IVPD. In conclusion, bran inclusion may contribute to texture improvement and intake of dietary fibre without compromising protein bioaccessibility. 

Structure, texture and protein digestibility of high moisture extruded meat alternatives enriched with cereal brans

There is a pressing need for affordable, abundant, and sustainable sources of proteins to address the rising nutrient demands of a growing global population. The food and agriculture sectors produce significant quantities of waste and by-products during the growing, harvesting, storing, transporting, and processing of raw materials. These waste and by-products can sometimes be converted into valuable protein-rich ingredients with excellent functional and nutritional attributes, thereby contributing to a more circular economy. This review critically assesses the potential for agro-industrial wastes and by-products to contribute to global protein requirements. Initially, we discuss the origins and molecular characteristics of plant proteins derived from agro-industrial waste and by-products. We then discuss the techno-functional attributes, extraction methods, and modification techniques that are applied to these plant proteins. Finally, challenges linked to the safety, allergenicity, anti-nutritional factors, digestibility, and sensory attributes of plant proteins derived from these sources are highlighted. The utilization of agro-industrial by-products and wastes as an economical, abundant, and sustainable protein source could contribute towards achieving the Sustainable Development Agenda's 2030 goal of a "zero hunger world", as well as mitigating fluctuations in food availability and prices, which have detrimental impacts on global food security and nutrition. 

Plant-based proteins from agro-industrial waste and by-products: Towards a more circular economy.

Chia (Salvia hispanica) has become increasingly popular in recent years due to its high protein content, among other nutritional benefits. This study aims to evaluate the nutritional and antinutritional composition, protein profile and protein quality of two chia seeds grown in Mexico and the UK, as well as to assess the impact that occurs during protein extraction and fractionation. Protein content of chia samples showed an increase after degumming, defatting, and extraction, obtaining protein concentrates from Mexican (MPC) and British (BPC) chia seeds with 88.32 and 89.20 g/100 g dw, respectively. Main protein fractions found in both chia seeds were globulins (Glo) and albumins (Alb). Essential amino acid index (EAAI) of chia samples ranged between 189.40 and 496.73% showing a 2-fold increase in comparison to the reference protein. In vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) increased after protein extraction (91% for MPC and BPC) but decreased after fractionation (∼68%). Trypsin inhibitors increased 78–82% after protein extraction, while total phenolics content (TPC) increased 7.77- and 5.76-fold for Mexican albumins (MAlb) and British albumins (BAlb), respectively. Phytic acid content showed a reduction of > 90% after extraction/fractionation. These findings showed that depending on the extraction and/or fractionation methods used the protein quality, digestibility and antinutrients will be highly influenced. 

Effect of protein extraction and fractionation of chia seeds grown in different locations: Nutritional, antinutritional and protein quality assessment

Proteins are important macronutrients for the human body to grow and function throughout life. Although proteins are found in most foods, their very dissimilar digestibility must be taking into con...

Effect of processing on in vitro digestibility (IVPD) of food proteins.

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Effect of processing on in vitro digestibility (IVPD) of food proteins.