Inverter-based resources respond differently than synchronous generation sources during power system faults, challenging line protection reliability. To understand the reliability challenges, Sandia National Laboratories and North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) led a collaborative study with four inverter manufacturers (mix of Type 3 Wind, Type 4 Wind, and PV Solar) and two North American protective relay manufacturers. As part of this study, an electromagnetic transients program (EMTP) with “real-code” models representing inverter firmware was used to investigate the protective relay response to faults on the modeled power system with the different inverter types. The currents and voltages obtained from the study were then played back through line relay hardware with settings typical of systems with conventional generation. The protective relays exhibited the expected reliability challenges but provided insight into the behavior of inverter-based resources during power system faults. In this paper, we share some of the challenging cases with the responses of the different line protection schemes. Using insight from the various event records, Part II of this paper shows how relay settings can be modified to obtain a substantial improvement in reliability.

Transmission Line Protection for Systems With Inverter-Based Resources – Part I: Problems

This paper presents a new protection algorithm for double circuit transmission lines using the sum of ratios of modal currents. Relay-operating characteristics is proposed using the complex ratio of modal currents. The proposed algorithm estimates modal domain line parameters and identifies the faulty phases for single pole-tripping applications even during inter-circuit faults. The scheme is sensitive to high resistance internal faults and also detects internal faults with outfeed. The proposed scheme is immune to mutual coupling and is found robust to uncertainties in parameter estimation due to measurement inaccuracies. The scheme is tested for its effectiveness to deal with current transformer saturation and synchronisation error. The scheme protects series compensated double circuit transmission lines even in the presence of current inversion. Exhaustive case studies in electromagnetic transient program (EMTP)/alternate transient program are performed on 400 kV, 300 km, double circuit transmission lines and the proposed protection algorithm is implemented in MATLAB. The results confirm the superiority of the proposed scheme.

New Algorithm for Protection of Double Circuit Transmission Lines Using Modal Currents

Review of recent developments in distance protection of series capacitor compensated lines

Utilizing double-circuit lines may represent a challenge for distance relaying functions owing to the significant impacts of the mutual coupling among the adjacent conductors. This paper proposes a new adaptive distance relaying scheme for double-circuit transmission lines using fuzzy logic tuning. The scheme depends on two basic steps. First, the impacts of the mutual coupling of the adjacent conductors on the accuracy of the distance relaying core are minimized based on the decoupling feature of modal transformation. Then, a dedicated online intelligent tuning mechanism is utilized to precisely improve the relay reach. The adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system is employed to realize an optimum design of the aimed tuning mechanism. A thorough investigation of the proposed scheme is performed utilizing a detailed modeling of a typical 400-kV interconnection system with both single- and double-circuit line segments. The electromagnetic transient program (ATP-EMTP) is employed for modeling the considered power system, whereas the protection scheme is constructed and tested using MATLAB. Finally, the performance of the proposed relaying scheme is investigated under different load conditions, various fault types and fault locations to visualize its efficacy precisely. As compared with conventional distance relaying core, the proposed adaptive distance scheme has a precise fault distance estimation with a reach error less than 6% of the total line length. Accordingly, a corrected declaration of the faulted zone is realized along the entire range of the protected line despite the added fault resistance, loading condition and fault type.

Improved Distance Relaying for Double-Circuit Lines Using Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System

For series-compensated line, the distance relay finds its limitations during voltage inversion, current inversion, load encroachment, power swing and balanced fault during the power swing. These limitations can be overcome by wide-area backup protection schemes. This study proposes a novel fault detection technique utilising the synchrophasor data of voltage and current signals at system protection centre. The algorithm compares the phase angle difference between positive-sequence voltage phasor under system intact condition and real-time positive- or negative-sequence current phasor, which is computed from the synchronised data obtained from phasor data concentrator after identifying the possible critical buses to which the faulted line is connected. Different cases of fault type, distance and resistance have been considered to validate the proposed scheme with 3-generator, 9-bus western system coordinating council using MATLAB/Simulink platform. The results justify the suitability of the proposed scheme to be deployed for achieving more reliable performance.

https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/iet-gtd.2020.0285

Novel phasor sequence-based fault detection scheme for wide-area backup protection of series-compensated line

In order to increase power transfer capabilities, Idaho Power is upgrading two existing 230 kV series-compensated transmission lines from 28 percent compensation to 70 percent compensation.

Voltage and current inversion challenges when protecting series-compensated lines — A case study

In order to reduce congestion and increase reliability, Southern California Edison (SCE) set forth to construct a new 500 kV transmission line. Due to right-of-way concerns, SCE needed to install a section of the new line underground, resulting in a combined cable and overhead transmission line. The finished line consists of two overhead sections separated by an underground section. The inclusion of underground cables causes the line to draw significant charging current, resulting in severe overvoltage conditions when the line is open circuited or lightly loaded. The protection package for this transmission line consists of distance protection complemented by a communications-assisted permissive scheme operating in parallel with a line current differential scheme. Because impedance-based fault locating would not be reliable for a line of this structure, we explored the use of a traveling-wave fault locater. To verify the correct operation of the proposed protection and fault locating scheme, the transmission line and its surrounding power system were modeled in a real-time digital simulator. This paper describes how to calculate line impedance and explores impedance-based and traveling-wave fault locating methods. It also discusses the protection challenges associated with operating a double-circuit transmission line as a single circuit and the challenges of a transmission line containing both overhead and underground conductors. Finally, the paper describes using real-time digital simulation to evaluate the performance of the protection system.

Protection challenges for North America's first combined cable/overhead double-circuit 500 kV transmission line with mutual coupling

While series compensation of transmission lines is not new technology, it is becoming more prevalent due to significant changes in the way grids are being operated. Compensating lines makes better use of transmission line investments and available right of way. However, series capacitors create many challenges for protection engineers. These challenges are mitigated using modern protective relays, robust telecommunications channels, and advanced transient simulation tools to validate protection systems. The Lower Colorado River Authority (LCRA) in the United States is protecting a series-compensated line on their transmission grid for the first time as part of the Competitive Renewable Energy Zone (CREZ). This paper discusses experiences in designing, setting, and validating the new protection system.

/pdf/series-compensated-line-protection-challenges-in-the-crez-4bby5zpeq2.pdf

Series-compensated line protection challenges in the CREZ region

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Voltage and current inversion challenges when protecting series-compensated lines — A case study

Protection challenges for North America's first combined cable/overhead double-circuit 500 kV transmission line with mutual coupling

Series-compensated line protection challenges in the CREZ region