Plant hormones become appropriate candidates for driving functional plant mycorrhization programs, including the processes that regulate the formation of arbuscules in Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis. Here, we examine the role played by ABA/GA interactions regulating the formation of AM in tomato. We report differences in ABA and GA metabolism between control and mycorrhizal roots. Active synthesis and catabolism of ABA occur in AM roots. GAs level increases as a consequence of a symbiosis-induced mechanism that requires functional arbuscules which in turn is dependent on a functional ABA pathway. A negative interaction in their metabolism has been demonstrated. ABA attenuates GA-biosynthetic and increases GA-catabolic gene expression leading to a reduction in bioactive GAs. Vice versa, GA activated ABA catabolism mainly in mycorrhizal roots. The negative impact of GA3 on arbuscule abundance in wild-type plants is partially offset by treatment with ABA and the application of a GA biosynthesis inhibitor rescued the arbuscule abundance in the ABA-deficient sitiens mutant. These findings, coupled with the evidence that ABA application leads to reduce bioactive GA1, support the hypothesis that ABA could act modifying bioactive GA level to regulate AM. Taken together, our results suggest that these hormones perform essential functions and antagonize each other by oppositely regulating AM formation in tomato roots.

/pdf/gibberellin-abscisic-acid-balances-during-arbuscular-v8q34vlbz8.pdf

Gibberellin-Abscisic Acid Balances during Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Formation in Tomato.

Plant growth and development are correlated with many aspects, including phytohormones, which have specific functions. However, the mechanism underlying the process has not been well elucidated. Gibberellins (GAs) play fundamental roles in almost every aspect of plant growth and development, including cell elongation, leaf expansion, leaf senescence, seed germination, and leafy head formation. The central genes involved in GA biosynthesis include GA20 oxidase genes (GA20oxs), GA3oxs, and GA2oxs, which correlate with bioactive GAs. The GA content and GA biosynthesis genes are affected by light, carbon availability, stresses, phytohormone crosstalk, and transcription factors (TFs) as well. However, GA is the main hormone associated with BR, ABA, SA, JA, cytokinin, and auxin, regulating a wide range of growth and developmental processes. DELLA proteins act as plant growth suppressors by inhibiting the elongation and proliferation of cells. GAs induce DELLA repressor protein degradation during the GA biosynthesis process to control several critical developmental processes by interacting with F-box, PIFS, ROS, SCLl3, and other proteins. Bioactive GA levels are inversely related to DELLA proteins, and a lack of DELLA function consequently activates GA responses. In this review, we summarized the diverse roles of GAs in plant development stages, with a focus on GA biosynthesis and signal transduction, to develop new insight and an understanding of the mechanisms underlying plant development.

/pdf/the-roles-of-gibberellins-in-regulating-leaf-development-3v9hgcen.pdf

The Roles of Gibberellins in Regulating Leaf Development

Influence of prohexadione-calcium on growth and gibberellins content of Chinese cabbage grown in alpine region of South Korea

This study was conducted to determine the effects of different day lengths and daminozide on days to flower, some quality parameters and chlorophyll contents of spray chrysanthemum plants (Chrysanthemum morifolium cvs. 'Yellow Reagan' and 'White Reagan') grown under greenhouse conditions. Day length and daminozide significantly affected days to flower, stem length, stem diameter and flower numbers per stem. While stem fresh weight and chlorophyll a and b contents were affected by day length, daminozide had an insignificant effect on these parameters. Long day (LD) conditions delayed days to flower by 42 days as compared to short day (SD) conditions. SD conditions reduced stem length (84.47 cm) by almost 2-fold as compared to LD conditions (169.88 cm). Under SD conditions, the stem lengths of plants treated (3000 mg L-1) and untreated (control) with daminozide were 79.21 and 89.73 cm, respectively, whereas under LD conditions, they were 156.33 and 183.43 cm, respectively. The flower number increased per stem both under SD conditions and with daminozide application. The numbers of flowers per stem were 13.40 and 11.87 under SD and LD conditions, respectively, and 14.11 flowers were obtained from the plants treated with daminozide, while 11.17 flowers per stem were obtained from the plants untreated with daminozide. LD conditions increased both chlorophylla (11.50 µg/mg) and chlorophyll b (5.93 µg/mg) contents as compared to SD conditions. In the study, compact and higher quality flowers with a desired stem length were obtained both under SD conditions and with daminozide application.

	 

	Key words: Chlorophyll, chrysanthemum, daminozide, long day, short day, stem length.

/pdf/effects-of-day-length-and-daminozide-on-the-flowering-some-19njf97wvi.pdf

Effects of day length and daminozide on the flowering, some quality parameters and chlorophyll content of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is an important horticultural crop that is vegetatively propagated using runner plants. To achieve massive production of runner plants, it is important to transfer the assimilation products of the mother plant to the runner plants, and not to the runner itself. Application of prohexadione–calcium (Pro–Ca), a plant growth retardant with few side effects, to strawberry is effective in inhibiting transport of assimilates to runners. This study aimed to determine the optimum application method and concentration of Pro–Ca on the growth characteristics of mother plants, runners, and runner plants for the propagation of strawberry in nurseries. Pro–Ca was applied at the rate of 0, 50, 100, 150, or 200 mg·L−1 (35 mL per plant) to plants via foliar spray or drenching under greenhouse conditions at 30 days after transplantation. Petiole lengths of mother plants were measured 15 weeks after treatment; growth was suppressed at the higher concentrations of Pro–Ca regardless of the application method. However, the crown diameter was not significantly affected by the application method or Pro–Ca concentration. The number of runners was 7.0 to 8.2, with no significant difference across treatments. Runner length was shorter at higher concentrations of Pro–Ca, especially in the 200 mg·L−1 drench treatment. However, fresh weight (FW) and dry weights (DW) of runners in the 50 mg·L−1 Pro–Ca drench treatments were higher than controls. Foliar spray and drench treatments were more effective for runner plant production than the control; a greater number of runner plants were produced with the 100 and 150 mg·L−1 Pro–Ca foliar spray treatment and the 50 and 100 mg·L−1 drench treatment. The FW and DW of the first runner plant was not significantly different in all treatments, but DW of the second runner plant, and FW and DW of the third runner plant were greatest in the 50 mg·L−1 Pro–Ca drench treatment. These results suggested that growth and production of runner plants of Maehyang strawberry were greatest under the 50 mg·L−1 Pro–Ca drench treatment.

Prohexadione-Calcium Application during Vegetative Growth Affects Growth of Mother Plants, Runners, and Runner Plants of Maehyang Strawberry

Effects of Prohexadione Calcium on growth and gibberellins contents of Chrysanthemum morifolium R. cv Monalisa White.

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Effects of Prohexadione Calcium on growth and gibberellins contents of Chrysanthemum morifolium R. cv Monalisa White.