One of the most chronic constraints to crop production is the grain yield reduction near the crop harvest stage by lodging worldwide. This is more prevalent in cereal crops, particularly in wheat and rice. Major factors associated with lodging involve morphological and anatomical traits along with the chemical composition of the stem. These traits have built up the remarkable relationship in wheat and rice genotypes either prone to lodging or displaying lodging resistance. In this review, we have made a comparison of our conceptual perceptions with foregoing published reports and proposed the fundamental controlling techniques that could be practiced to control the devastating effects of lodging stress. The management of lodging stress is, however, reliant on chemical, agronomical, and genetic factors that are reducing the risk of lodging threat in wheat and rice. But, still, there are many questions remain to be answered to elucidate the complex lodging phenomenon, so agronomists, breeders, physiologists, and molecular biologists require further investigation to address this challenging problem.

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/20/17/4211/pdf

Improving Lodging Resistance: Using Wheat and Rice as Classical Examples.

Chemical regulators of gibberellin status and their application in plant production

Prohexadione-calcium alleviates saline-alkali stress in soybean seedlings by improving the photosynthesis and up-regulating antioxidant defense.

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are commonly applied to ultradwarf hybrid bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. ́ C. transvaalensis Burtt-Davy] putting greens during the growing season. Trinexapac-ethyl (TE) and prohexadione-Ca (PH) are PGRs that inhibit gibberellic acid biosynthesis and are used to reduce clipping yield and improve turfgrass visual quality. Growing degree day (GDD) models have optimized the timing of PGR reapplications to creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) putting greens, but no information is available regarding proper PGR reapplication timing on bermudagrass putting greens. The objective of this research was to develop a GDD model to determine optimal TE and PH application frequencies on bermudagrass putting greens. Field research was conducted on three ultradwarf cultivars at separate locations in the southeastern United States: ‘MiniVerde’ in Knoxville, TN, ‘Champion’ in Durham, NC, and ‘TifEagle’ in Starkville, MS. Peak yield suppression was 49 to 65% after TE application at 0.034  kg a.i. ha−1 and 50 to 54% after 0.154 kg PH ha−1. Peak suppression occurred later for TE (166–177 GDD calculated using 10°C as the base temperature [GDD10C]) than for PH (92–97  GDD10C), which resulted in an estimated PGR reapplication interval of 216 to 230 for TE and 120 to 126 GDD10C for PH. Enhanced clipping yield and rebound did not follow clipping yield suppression. The use of a GDD model to schedule PGR applications on bermudagrass putting greens has the potential to maximize PGR benefits; however, seasonlong implementation of this GDD model needs comparison with current PGR programs used on ultradwarf putting surfaces. E.H. Reasor and J.D. McCurdy, Dep. of Plant and Soil Sciences, Mississippi State Univ., 117 Dorman Hall, 32 Creelman St., Box 9555, Mississippi State, MS 39762; J.T. Brosnan and D.R. Taylor, Dep. of Plant Sciences, Univ. of Tennessee–Knoxville, 2431 Joe Johnson Dr., 252 Ellington Plant Sciences Building, Knoxville, TN 37996; J.P. Kerns and W.J. Hutchens, Dep. of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State Univ., Campus Box 7620, North Carolina State Univ. Campus, Raleigh, NC 27695-7620; D.J. Soldat, Dep. of Soil Science, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706; W.C. Kreuser, Dep. of Agronomy and Horticulture, Univ. of Nebraska–Lincoln, 202 Keim Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915. Received 30 Jan. 2018. Accepted 24 Apr. 2018. *Corresponding author (wkreuser2@unl.edu). Assigned to Associate Editor Douglas Karcher. Abbreviations: GA, gibberellic acid; GDD, growing degree days; GDD10C, growing degree days calculated using 10°C as the base temperature; PGR, plant growth regulator; PH, prohexadione-calcium; TE, trinexapac-ethyl. Published in Crop Sci. 58:1801–1807 (2018). doi: 10.2135/cropsci2018.01.0077 © Crop Science Society of America | 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Published June 7, 2018

Growing Degree Day Models for Plant Growth Regulator Applications on Ultradwarf Hybrid Bermudagrass Putting Greens

Lodging Resistance Related to Root Traits for Mechanized Wet-Seeding of Two Super Rice Cultivars

We investigated the influence of prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca), trinexapac-ethyl (TNE) and hexaconazole (HX) on lodging and gibberellin (GA) biosynthesis pathway of rice cultivar, Hwayeongbyeo. It was observed that these novel synthetic growth retardants suppressed lodging of rice under field conditions through blocking GA biosynthesis pathway. These growth retarding chemicals were applied at basic (20 uM) and elevated (40 uM) rates either 10 days before heading (10 DBH) or 5 days before heading (5 DBH). We found that Pro-Ca, TNE and their combined application (Pro-Ca + TNE) were most effective in decreasing rice length and lodging index, when applied at 10 DBH. Similarly, the endogenous bioactive GA1 contents of rice significantly declined with application of ProCa, TNE and Pro-Ca + TNE, while they were less effected by basic and elevated rates of HX as compared to the control. The growth retardants were more effective in decreasing rice lodging and blocking GA biosynthesis when applied in elevated rates. The levels of the endogenous gibberellins in rice shoots were measured by GC/MS-SIM using 2 H2-labeled gibberellins as internal standards. Effect of these synthetic chemicals on growth and GA inhibition were stronger initially but eroded rapidly under field conditions. It was thus concluded that Pro-Ca and TNE were most effective in reducing plant length and suppressing lodging of rice crop under field conditions, where lodging is a major constraint to higher productivity.

/pdf/influence-of-prohexadione-calcium-trinexapac-ethyl-and-1030spqkrd.pdf

Influence of prohexadione-calcium, trinexapac-ethyl and hexaconazole on lodging characteristic and gibberellin biosynthesis of rice (Oryza sativa L.)

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Influence of prohexadione-calcium, trinexapac-ethyl and hexaconazole on lodging characteristic and gibberellin biosynthesis of rice (Oryza sativa L.)