Although fruit fly host status determination/designation lies at the heart of strategic decisions on national and international trade of fruit and vegetables, all attempts thus far to define host plant sta- tus have been contentious and as a result long-standing disputes between commercial partners throughout the world have lingered over decades. Part of the problem is that too little effort has been devoted to understanding the underlying mechanisms involved in host plant use by fruit flies and that instead economic and political interests usually prevail. Here we review the most important evolu- tionary, biological, ecological, physiological, and behavioral aspects that drive host use by fruit flies, and then construct a flow diagram rooted in these fundamentals that outlines a series of steps and def- initions to determine if a particular fruit or vegetable (and cultivars thereof) is a natural host, or a conditional (potential, artificial) host, or a nonhost. Along the way, we incorporate risk analysis considera- tions and propose that the underlying complexity determining host plant utilization by fruit flies requires a flexible systems approach ca- pable of realistically dealing with fly/host/environment/geographic variability on a case-by-case basis.

Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) Host Status Determination: Critical Conceptual, Methodological, and Regulatory Considerations

Heat treatment and fruit ripening

Gros plan sur les traitements thermiques des maladies d'entreposage et contre les insectes ravageurs des fruits: desinfestation par la vapeur, reaction des fruits a la chaleur, traitements associes

Heat treatment for control of postharvest diseases and insect pests of fruits

The current status of research on the use of ionizing radiation for shelf life improvement and disinfestation of fresh tropical fruits like bananas, mangoes, and papayas are reviewed. The aspects covered are influence of maturity and physiological state of the fruits on delayed ripening and tolerance to radiation; varietal responses; changes in chemical constituents, volatiles, respiration, and ethylene evolution; biochemical mechanisms of delayed ripening and browning of irradiated fruits; and organoleptic quality. The efficacy of the combination of hot water dip and radiation treatments for control of postharvest fungal diseases are considered. The immediate potential of radiation as a quarantine treatment, in place of the currently used chemical fumigants, for disinfestation of fruit flies and mango seed weevil are discussed. Future prospects for irradiation of tropical fruits are discussed in the light of experience gained from studies conducted in different countries.

Radiation preservation of foods of plant origin. III. Tropical fruits: Bananas, mangoes, and papayas

A series of experiments were conducted to evaluate the toxicity of lemon peel extracts incorporated into mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata diet. Extracts were obtained with different solvents: diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, and methanol. All three extracts were toxic to some extent; the diethyl ether extract was selected for further studies. Ether extracts of lemon peel were prepared weekly over a 2-month period, from fruits collected on the 1st d of the bioassay. Weekly GC-MS and UV analyses of the extracts demonstrated that the concentration of citral and coumarins decreased in the peel after harvest. We conducted a series of bioassays to evaluate the toxicity of the ether extract, and mixtures of this extract with citral, 5,7-dimethoxycoumarin, and linalool incorporated to C. capitata larvae's natural diet (lemon slices endocarp) at a concentration of 250 μg/g of diet. Significant larvicidal activity can be obtained from a fresh lemon peel extract; however, when the extract was obtained from stored lemons, toxicity decreased. Addition of small amounts of citral or 5,7-dimethoxy- coumarin, and linalool to the stored lemon peel extract would bring back the toxicity to the rates of fresh lemons extracts. Finally, female adults of C. capitata fed on diets containing additional amounts of ether extract, 5,7-dimethoxycoumarin, and linalool, were exposed to different photoperiods to test for phototoxicity. The treatment was toxic and affected the oviposition capacity of females depending on photoperiod.

Toxic effects of lemon peel constituents on Ceratitis capitata.

A 15-min, 50°C hot-water immersion treatment was developed as an alternative quarantine treatment to ethylene dibromide fumigation for ‘Brazilian’ variety bananas against the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), the melon fly, Dacus cucurbitae Coquillett, and the oriental fruit fly, D. dorsalis Hendel. The hot-water immersion disinfested ‘Brazilian’ variety bananas without detriment to either fruit quality or shelf life.

Development of a Hot-Water Immersion Quarantine Treatment for Hawaiian-Grown ‘Brazilian’ Bananas

The status of commercial California lemons, Citrus limon L., cv. Eureka and Lisbon, as a host of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), was examined. Lemons were artificially exposed in cages to 7,500 adult C. capitata . Estimated populations of 515,982 eggs in 1,609 lemons resulted in only five live pupae. These few survivors are well below quarantine requirements of one survivor per 33,333. These results confirm that lemon cv. Eureka and Lisbon should not be considered a host of C. capitata .

Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) Host Status of Commercial Lemon

Methyl bromide fumigations of 24 g/m3 for 2.5 h, 32 g/m3 for 1.5 h or longer, and 48 g/m3 for 1.0 h or longer, at 300°C or above, and normal atmospheric pressure were found to disinfest apricots, nectarines, peaches, and plums infested with Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), at the probit 9 quarantine security level.

Methyl Bromide Fumigation Treatments at 30°C for California Stonefruits Infested with the Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Three of 5 native populations and a laboratory strain of Plodia interpunctella (Hubner) were found resistant to malathion. A susceptible population stressed with malathion showed a 110-fold increase in resistance in 5 generations. Reciprocal crosses of malathion-resistant and malathion-susceptible Indian meal moths showed that transport of resistant insects into an area where only susceptible moths are found may cause an increase in resistant moths in that area.

Malathion Resistance in Some Populations of the Indian Meal Moth Infesting Dried Fruits and Tree Nuts in California

A technique was developed for holding treated and control commodities on trays containing larval diet for Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) quarantine treatment research. This new technique gives maximum C. capitata recovery in controls, even when the commodity deteriorates too rapidly for completion of larval development or the commodity is otherwise a poor host. The technique increases quarantine treatment research efficiency by decreasing the amount of time required to service and maintain holding facilities, to collect pupae, and to obtain test results. It also decreases the number of replications required to develop efficacy data, the costs of individual holding boxes, and the costs for commodities.

http://jee.oxfordjournals.org/content/jee/77/2/553.full.pdf

Improved Holding Technique for Infested Commodities Used for Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) Quarantine Treatment Research

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