https://www.amjmed.com/article/0002-9343(69)90101-6/pdf

Causes and Consequences

Background Patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection are at increased risk for bacterial pneumonia in addition to opportunistic infection. However, the risk factors for bacterial pneumonia and its incidence in this population are not well defined. Methods In a multicenter, prospective, observational study, we monitored 1130 HIV-positive and 167 HIV-negative participating adults for up to 64 months for pulmonary disease. The HIV-positive group comprised 814 homosexual or bisexual men, 261 injection-drug users, and 55 female partners of HIV-infected men. Results There were 237 episodes of bacterial pneumonia among the HIV-positive participants (rate, 5.5 per 100 person-years), as compared with 6 episodes among the HIV-negative participants (rate, 0.9 per 100 person-years; P<0.001). The rate of bacterial pneumonia increased with decreasing CD4 lymphocyte counts (2.3, 6.8, and 10.8 episodes per 100 person-years in the strata with more than 500, 200 to 500, and fewer than 200 cells per cubic m...

https://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM199509283331305

Bacterial pneumonia in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus

Opioids, opioid receptors, and the immune response.

This Update reviews the clinically relevant pharmacology of heroin and naloxone, the epidemiology of fatal and nonfatal heroin overdose, the clinical diagnosis of heroin overdose, appropriate treat...

Acute Heroin Overdose

The use of recreational drugs of abuse has generated serious health concerns. There is a long-recognized relationship between addictive drugs and increased levels of infections. Studies of the mechanisms of actions of these drugs became more urgent with the advent of AIDS and its correlation with abused substances. The nature and mechanisms of immunomodulation by marijuana, opiates, cocaine, nicotine, and alcohol are described in this review. Recent studies of the effects of opiates or marijuana on the immune system have demonstrated that they are receptor mediated, occurring both directly via specific receptors on immune cells and indirectly through similar receptors on cells of the nervous system. Findings are also discussed that demonstrate that cocaine and nicotine have similar immunomodulatory effects, which are also apparently receptor mediated. Finally, the nature and mechanisms of immunomodulation by alcohol are described. Although no specific alcohol receptors have been identified, it is widely recognized that alcohol enhances susceptibility to opportunistic microbes. The review covers recent studies of the effects of these drugs on immunity and on increased susceptibility to infectious diseases, including AIDS.

Microbial Infections, Immunomodulation, and Drugs of Abuse

Excerpt An estimated 60,000 to 120,000 persons in the United States are addicted or habituated to opiates, the former defined as physical dependence on the drugs, the latter as chronic use without ...

The major medical complications of heroin addiction.

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The major medical complications of heroin addiction.