The factor of scale in remote sensing

This paper presents a preliminary study for mapping sea ice patterns (texture) with 100-m ERS-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery. The authors used gray-level co-occurrence matrices (GLCM) to quantitatively evaluate textural parameters and representations and to determine which parameter values and representations are best for mapping sea ice texture. They conducted experiments on the quantization levels of the image and the displacement and orientation values of the GLCM by examining the effects textural descriptors such as entropy have in the representation of different sea ice textures. They showed that a complete gray-level representation of the image is not necessary for texture mapping, an eight-level quantization representation is undesirable for textural representation, and the displacement factor in texture measurements is more important than orientation. In addition, they developed three GLCM implementations and evaluated them by a supervised Bayesian classifier on sea ice textural contexts. This experiment concludes that the best GLCM implementation in representing sea ice texture is one that utilizes a range of displacement values such that both microtextures and macrotextures of sea ice can be adequately captured. These findings define the quantization, displacement, and orientation values that are the best for SAR sea ice texture analysis using GLCM.

https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=csearticles

Texture analysis of SAR sea ice imagery using gray level co-occurrence matrices

Annual maps of global artificial impervious area (GAIA) between 1985 and 2018

Agriculture provides for the most basic needs of humankind: food and fiber. The introduction of new farming techniques in the past century (e.g., during the Green Revolution) has helped agriculture keep pace with growing demands for food and other agricultural products. However, further increases in food demand, a growing population, and rising income levels are likely to put additional strain on natural resources. With growing recognition of the negative impacts of agriculture on the environment, new techniques and approaches should be able to meet future food demands while maintaining or reducing the environmental footprint of agriculture. Emerging technologies, such as geospatial technologies, Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data analysis, and artificial intelligence (AI), could be utilized to make informed management decisions aimed to increase crop production. Precision agriculture (PA) entails the application of a suite of such technologies to optimize agricultural inputs to increase agricultural production and reduce input losses. Use of remote sensing technologies for PA has increased rapidly during the past few decades. The unprecedented availability of high resolution (spatial, spectral and temporal) satellite images has promoted the use of remote sensing in many PA applications, including crop monitoring, irrigation management, nutrient application, disease and pest management, and yield prediction. In this paper, we provide an overview of remote sensing systems, techniques, and vegetation indices along with their recent (2015–2020) applications in PA. Remote-sensing-based PA technologies such as variable fertilizer rate application technology in Green Seeker and Crop Circle have already been incorporated in commercial agriculture. Use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has increased tremendously during the last decade due to their cost-effectiveness and flexibility in obtaining the high-resolution (cm-scale) images needed for PA applications. At the same time, the availability of a large amount of satellite data has prompted researchers to explore advanced data storage and processing techniques such as cloud computing and machine learning. Given the complexity of image processing and the amount of technical knowledge and expertise needed, it is critical to explore and develop a simple yet reliable workflow for the real-time application of remote sensing in PA. Development of accurate yet easy to use, user-friendly systems is likely to result in broader adoption of remote sensing technologies in commercial and non-commercial PA applications.

Applications of Remote Sensing in Precision Agriculture: A Review

Remote Sensing Handbook for Tropical Coastal Management

The developers as well as the users of remotely sensed data and geographic information system (GIS) techniques are associated with nearly all types of institutions in government, industry, and academia Individuals in these various institutions often find the barriers to accepting remote sensing and GIS are not necessarily technical in nature, but can be attributed to the institutions themselves Several major institutional issues that affect the technologies of remote sensing and GIS are data availability, data marketing and costs, equipment availability and costs, standards and practices, education and training, and organizational infrastructures Problems associated with these issues are identified, and the needs and opportunities are discussed

Institutional issues affecting the integration and use of remotely sensed data and geographic information systems

The United States Coast Guard currently is developing AlREYE, an all-weather, day/night airborne surveillance system,for installation aboard future medium range surveillance (MRS) aircraft. As part of this program, a series of controlled tests was conducted off southern California during May, 1976 in order to evaluate the oil slick and surface target detection capabilities of two Motorola-developed side-looking radars. The systems, a real-aperture AN/APS-94D and a synthetic-aperture coherent-on-receive (COR), were flown over the Santa Barbara Channel on May 19, 1976. Targets imaged during the coincident overflights included natural oil seepage, simulated oil spills, oil production platforms, piers, mooring buoys, commercial boats and barges, small pleasure craft, and coastal kelp beds. This paper describes the test program and compares oil and surface target detection results for the two systems. Based on an analysis of imagery from the coincident radar runs, COR provided better detection of natural and man-made oil slicks, whereas the AN/APS-94D consistently exhibited higher surface target detection results. tive of the test program was to document and compare overwater performance capabilities of realand synthetic-aperture radars against a range of man-made and natural surface targets. As an integral part of performance documentation, the Geography Remote aperture radar and an X-band vertically polarized coherent-on-receive (COR) synthetic aperture system. Both radars were designed and developed at Motorola's Government Electronics Division, Scottsdale, Arizona. At the time of the tests the two systems PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING AND REMOTE SENSING, Vol. 43, No. 12, December 1977, pp. 1523-1531. 1523 1524 PHOTOGRAM METRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING, 1977 were potential candidates for inclusion in the Coast Guard's AIREYE sensor package. AIREYE is an all-weather, day/night widearea airborne remote sensing system being developed for operational use aboard the Coast Guard's medium range surveillance (MRS) aircraft. Sensor selection for AIREYE was the direct result of evaluation tests involving the Coast Guard's earlier airborne oil surveillance system (AOSS). Background information on the AOSS program and full particulars on sensor evaluations appear in the 1973 and 1975 Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution Proceedings and in a final report from Aerojet Electro-Systems Company to the Coast Guard (Ketchel and Edgerton, 1973; Maurer and Edgelton, 1975; Edgelton et ai., 1975). The AIREYE sensor package will include a sidelooking airborne radar (SLAR), infrared/ ultraviolet line scanner (IR/UV-LS), aerial reconnaissance camera (ARC), active-gated television (AGTV), and an airborne data annotation system (ADAS). Initially, the Coast Guard plans to equip six MRS aircraft with the full AIREYE sensor package. The test program reported here is unique in that it represents one of the few documented comparative evaluations of realand synthetic-aperture SLAR systems and to our knowledge, the first time that two such systems have been flown coincidentally to image oil pollution and other sea surface targets. Also, the tests presented an opportunity to compare the relative overwater performance capabilities of horizontally and veltically polarized antennas. Although our evaluation of the imagery from the test program covered a wide range of natural and man-made targets, this paper will emphasize our comparative assessment of the oil pollution detection capabilities of the two radar systems.

Radar detection of surface oil slicks

Aerial photography has been employed by archaeologists since 1906. This study discusses the application of image processing of historical photographs as an aid to archaeological excavations at two California mission sites.Research on the Mission Vieja de la Purisima site involved the mapping of the Old Mission complex, destroyed by an earthquake and mudslide in 1812. Optical means of multiple-image registration and scale change were employed. The second study involved the digital transformation of an historical photograph of Mission San Buenaventura from its oblique perspective into a “psuedo-vertical” format.Information obtained in these studies is being used by archaeological researchers and has been found accurate and extremely useful. The preliminary mapping of the Mission Vieja de la Purisima has aided in the preservation of the area and played a major role in the mission's being designated as a California and National Historical site.

The Use of Historical Photography For Mapping Archaeological Sites

Research to describe figure-ground relationships in three dimensions to cartography students resulted in the development of stereoscopic choropleth maps. The map medium is unique in that it retains the shape and planimetry of individual enumeration districts unlike many isometric or one- and two-point perspective diagrams. Also, because of its projection, no masking of important low-valued enumeration districts takes place if an "expanded" view is selected. The enhancement of figure-ground relationships using depth contrast is discussed along with limitations of the method. These factors coupled with the relative ease of construction suggest that the stereoscopic choropleth map has utility as a special-purpose map. La recherche sur la description en trois dimensions, a l'intention des etudiants en cartographie, des relations entre les donnees thematiques a souligner et le fond de carte a entraine l'etablissement de cartes choroplethes stereoscopiques. La carte est un moyen exceptionnel: elle conserve la f...

Three-dimensional choropleth maps / development and aspects of cartographic communication

Multidate crop identification using microdensitometer scanned color infrared high-altitude photography (original scale 1:120,000) and Landsat digital data was conducted for a 140 sq km study area in Kern County, California. The purpose of this analysis was not to achieve maximum crop identification accuracy per se, but to comparatively evaluate the utility of the two image formats for digital crop identification. Preliminary results indicate that the Landsat digital approach is superior to analysis of digitized high-altitude photography. Vignetting in the high-altitude photography dataset caused serious signature extension problems. /Author/

High-altitude verses landsat imagery for digital crop identification

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