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Biomechanics And Motor Control Of Human Movement

Throughout the sport-science and sports-medicine literature, the term "elite" subjects might be one of the most overused and ill-defined terms. Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort. This paper presents a 6-tiered Participant Classification Framework whereby all individuals across a spectrum of exercise backgrounds and athletic abilities can be classified. The Participant Classification Framework uses training volume and performance metrics to classify a participant to one of the following: Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; or Tier 5: World Class. We suggest the Participant Classification Framework can be used to classify participants both prospectively (as part of study participant recruitment) and retrospectively (during systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses). Discussion around how the Participant Classification Framework can be tailored toward different sports, athletes, and/or events has occurred, and sport-specific examples provided. Additional nuances such as depth of sport participation, nationality differences, and gender parity within a sport are all discussed. Finally, chronological age with reference to the junior and masters athlete, as well as the Paralympic athlete, and their inclusion within the Participant Classification Framework has also been considered. It is our intention that this framework be widely implemented to systematically classify participants in research featuring exercise, sport, performance, health, and/or fitness outcomes going forward, providing the much-needed uniformity to classification practices.

Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework.

This review covers underlying physiological characteristics and training considerations that may affect muscular strength including improving maximal force expression and time-limited force expression. Strength is underpinned by a combination of morphological and neural factors including muscle cross-sectional area and architecture, musculotendinous stiffness, motor unit recruitment, rate coding, motor unit synchronization, and neuromuscular inhibition. Although single- and multi-targeted block periodization models may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, concepts within each model must be considered within the limitations of the sport, athletes, and schedules. Bilateral training, eccentric training and accentuated eccentric loading, and variable resistance training may produce the greatest comprehensive strength adaptations. Bodyweight exercise, isolation exercises, plyometric exercise, unilateral exercise, and kettlebell training may be limited in their potential to improve maximal strength but are still relevant to strength development by challenging time-limited force expression and differentially challenging motor demands. Training to failure may not be necessary to improve maximum muscular strength and is likely not necessary for maximum gains in strength. Indeed, programming that combines heavy and light loads may improve strength and underpin other strength-power characteristics. Multiple sets appear to produce superior training benefits compared to single sets; however, an athlete’s training status and the dose–response relationship must be considered. While 2- to 5-min interset rest intervals may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, rest interval length may vary based an athlete’s training age, fiber type, and genetics. Weaker athletes should focus on developing strength before emphasizing power-type training. Stronger athletes may begin to emphasize power-type training while maintaining/improving their strength. Future research should investigate how best to implement accentuated eccentric loading and variable resistance training and examine how initial strength affects an athlete’s ability to improve their performance following various training methods.

The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations

Background/Aim - To investigate the role of eccentric knee flexor strength, between-limb imbalance and biceps femoris long head (BFlh) fascicle length on the risk of a future hamstring strain injury (HSI). Methods - Elite soccer players (n=152) from eight different teams participated. Eccentric knee flexor strength during the Nordic hamstring exercise and BFlh fascicle length were assessed at the beginning of pre-season. The occurrences of a HSI following this were recorded by the team medical staff. Relative risk (RR) was determined for univariate data, and logistic regression was employed for multivariate data. Results - Twenty-seven new HSIs were reported. Eccentric knee flexor strength below 337N (RR = 4.4; 95% CI = 1.1 to 17.5) and BFlh fascicles shorter than 10.56cm (RR = 4.1; 95% CI=1.9 to 8.7) significantly increased the risk of a subsequent HSI. Multivariate logistic regression revealed significant effects when combinations of age, previous history of HSI, eccentric knee flexor strength and BFlh fascicle length were explored. From these analyses the likelihood of a future HSI in older athletes or those with a previous HSI history was reduced if high levels of eccentric knee flexor strength and longer BFlh fascicles were present. Conclusions - The presence of short BFlh fascicles and low levels of eccentric strength in elite soccer players increase the risk of a future HSI. The greater risk of a future HSI in older players or those with a previous HSI is reduced when they possess longer BFlh fascicles and high levels of eccentric strength.

Short biceps femoris fascicles and eccentric knee flexor weakness increase the risk of hamstring injury in elite football (soccer): A prospective cohort study

The external movement loads imposed on players during competitive team sports are commonly measured using global positioning system devices. Information gleaned from analyses is employed to calibrate physical conditioning and injury prevention strategies with the external loads imposed during match play. Intense accelerations and decelerations are considered particularly important indicators of external load. However, to date, no prior meta-analysis has compared high and very high intensity acceleration and deceleration demands in elite team sports during competitive match play. The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to quantify and compare high and very high intensity acceleration vs. deceleration demands occurring during competitive match play in elite team sport contexts. A systematic review of four electronic databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) was conducted to identify peer-reviewed articles published between January 2010 and April 2018 that had reported higher intensity (> 2.5 m·s−2) accelerations and decelerations concurrently in elite team sports competitive match play. A Boolean search phrase was developed using key words synonymous to team sports (population), acceleration and deceleration (comparators) and match play (outcome). Articles only eligible for meta-analysis were those that reported either or both high (> 2.5 m·s−2) and very high (> 3.5 m·s−2) intensity accelerations and decelerations concurrently using global positioning system devices (sampling rate: ≥ 5 Hz) during elite able-bodied (mean age: ≥ 18 years) team sports competitive match play (match time: ≥ 75%). Separate inverse random-effects meta-analyses were conducted to compare: (1) standardised mean differences (SMDs) in the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations occurring during match play, and (2) SMDs of temporal changes in high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations across first and second half periods of match play. Using recent guidelines recommended for the collection, processing and reporting of global positioning system data, a checklist was produced to help inform a judgement about the methodological limitations (risk of detection bias) aligned to ‘data collection’, ‘data processing’ and ‘normative profile’ for each eligible study. For each study, each outcome was rated as either ‘low’, ‘unclear’ or ‘high’ risk of bias. A total of 19 studies met the eligibility criteria, comprising seven team sports including American Football (n = 1), Australian Football (n = 2), hockey (n = 1), rugby league (n = 4), rugby sevens (n = 3), rugby union (n = 2) and soccer (n = 6) with a total of 469 male participants (mean age: 18–29 years). Analysis showed only American Football reported a greater frequency of high (SMD = 1.26; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06–1.43) and very high (SMD = 0.19; 95% CI − 0.42 to 0.80) intensity accelerations compared to decelerations. All other sports had a greater frequency of high and very high intensity decelerations compared to accelerations, with soccer demonstrating the greatest difference for both the high (SMD = − 1.74; 95% CI − 1.28 to − 2.21) and very high (SMD = − 3.19; 95% CI − 2.05 to − 4.33) intensity categories. When examining the temporal changes from the first to the second half periods of match play, there was a small decrease in both the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations (SMD = 0.50 and 0.49, respectively) and decelerations (SMD = 0.42 and 0.46, respectively). The greatest risk of bias (40% ‘high’ risk of bias) observed across studies was in the ‘data collection’ procedures. The lowest risk of bias (35% ‘low’ risk of bias) was found in the development of a ‘normative profile’. To ensure that elite players are optimally prepared for the high-intensity accelerations and decelerations imposed during competitive match play, it is imperative that players are exposed to comparable demands under controlled training conditions. The results of this meta-analysis, accordingly, can inform practical training designs. Finally, guidelines and recommendations for conducting future research, using global positioning system devices, are suggested.

/pdf/high-intensity-acceleration-and-deceleration-demands-in-2xfbgi13u4.pdf

High-Intensity Acceleration and Deceleration Demands in Elite Team Sports Competitive Match Play: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

This study aimed to determine the within- and between-session reliability of medial gastrocnemius (MG) architecture (e.g. muscle thickness (MT), fascicle length (FL) and pennation angle (PA)), as derived via ultrasonography followed by manual digitization. A single rater recorded three ultrasound images of the relaxed MG muscle belly for both legs of 16 resistance trained males, who were positioned in a pronated position with their knees fully extended and the ankles in a neutral (e.g. 90°) position. A subset of participants (n = 11) were retested under the same conditions ~48-72 hours after baseline testing. The same rater manually digitized each ultrasound image on three occasions to determine MG MT, FL and PA before pooling the data accordingly to allow for within-image (n = 96), between-image (n = 32) and between-session reliability (n = 22) to be determined. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) demonstrated excellent within-image (ICCs = 0.99-1.00, P < 0.001) and very good between-image (ICCs = 0.83-0.95, P < 0.001) and between-session (ICCs = 0.89-0.95, P < 0.001) reliability for MT, FL and PA. Between-session coefficient of variation was low (≤ 3.6%) for each architectural parameter and smallest detectible difference values of 10.6%, 11.4% and 9.8% were attained for MT, FL and PA, respectively. Manually digitizing ultrasound images of the MG muscle at rest yields highly reliable measurements of its architectural properties. Furthermore, changes in MG MT, FL and PA of ≥ 10.6%, 11.4% and 9.8% respectively, as brought about by any form of intervention, should be considered meaningful.

https://www.termedia.pl/Journal/-78/pdf-27585-10?filename=13_24474 Article.pdf

Within- and between-session reliability of medial gastrocnemius architectural properties.

Purpose: To determine the reliability of early force production (50-, 100-, 150-, 200-, 250 ms) relative to peak force (PF) during an isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and assess the relationships between these variables. Methods: Male collegiate athletes (n = 29; age: 21.1 ± 2.9 years; height: 1.71 ± 0.07 m; body mass: 71.3 ± 13.6 kg) performed IMTPs during two separate testing sessions. Net PF and net force produced at each epoch were calculated. Within- and between-session reliability were determined by using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV%). Additionally, Pearson’s correlation coefficients and coefficient of determination, were calculated to examine the relationships between PF and time-specific force production. Results: Net PF and time-specific force demonstrated very high to almost perfect reliability both within- and between-sessions (ICCs 0.82-0.97; CV% 0.35-1.23%). Similarly, time-specific force expressed as a percentage of PF demonstrated very high to almost perfect reliability both within- and between-sessions (ICCs 0.76-0.86; CV% 0.32-2.51%). Strong to nearly perfect relationships (r = 0.615-0.881) exist between net PF and time-specific net force, with relationships improving over longer epochs. Conclusion: Based on the smallest detectable difference, a change in force at 50 ms expressed relative to PF >10% and early force production (100-, 150-, 200- and 250 ms) expressed relative to PF of >2% should be considered meaningful. Expressing early force production as a percentage of PF is reliable and may provide greater insight into the adaptations to the previous training phase than PF alone.

/pdf/normalization-of-early-isometric-force-production-as-a-ge1l0r77dv.pdf

Normalization of early isometric force production as a percentage of peak force during multijoint isometric assessment

Purpose: To determine the reliability of the 505 change-of-direction (COD) test performed with both a stationary and a flying start Methods: Fifty-two female netball players (age 239 ± 54 y, height 1699 ± 33 cm, body mass 652 ± 46 kg) performed 6 trials of the 505 COD test, 3 with a flying start and 3 with a stationary start, once per week over a 4-wk period to determine within- and between-sessions reliability Results: Testing revealed high within-session reliability for the stationary start (ICC = 96–97) and for the flying start (ICC = 90–97) Similarly, both the stationary start (ICC = 965) and the flying start (ICC = 951) demonstrated high reliability between sessions, although repeated-measures analysis of variance (P < 001) revealed learning effects between sessions for both tests Performances stabilized on day 2 for the static start and on day 3 for the flying start Conclusions: The 505 COD test is a reliable test in female netball players, with either a stationary or flying start

/pdf/reliability-of-the-505-change-of-direction-test-in-netball-42whfppf55.pdf

Reliability of the 505 Change-of-Direction Test in Netball Players

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text. ABSTRACT The good morning is a barbell exercise that can be used to develop muscular strength and hypertrophy in the posterior chain (i.e., hamstring muscles, gluteal muscles, spinal erectors, calf complex). The exercise uses a hip hinge motion with the barbell positioned across the upper trapezius, offering lifters an alternative to more common posterior chain exercises, such as the Romanian deadlift. The good morning may be particularly beneficial for lifters with lower levels of grip strength or upper-limb injury, which may prevent using a clean or opposing grip. This review describes exercise techniques and discusses some of the underpinning principles of the exercise and potential applications in training.Video Abstract—http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A393.

The Good Morning—Exercise Technique and Exercise Selection Principles

Perez-Castilla, A, Comfort, P, McMahon, JJ, Pestana-Melero, FL, and Garcia-Ramos, A. Comparison of the force-, velocity-, and power-time curves between the concentric-only and eccentric-concentric bench press exercises. J Strength Cond Res 34(6): 1618-1624, 2020-The aim of this study was to compare the temporal and mechanical variables between the concentric-only and eccentric-concentric bench press (BP) variants. Twenty-one men (age: 22.0 ± 4.2 years, body mass: 73.4 ± 7.7 kg, height: 177.2 ± 8.0 cm; 1 repetition maximum [1RM]: 1.12 ± 0.12 kg·kg) were evaluated during the concentric-only and eccentric-concentric BP variants using 80% 1RM. Temporal (concentric phase duration, propulsive phase duration, and time to reach the maximum values of force, velocity, and power) and mechanical variables (force, velocity, and power), determined using a linear velocity transducer, were compared between both BP variants. All temporal variables were significantly lower during the eccentric-concentric BP compared with the concentric-only BP (p ≤ 0.05; effect size [ES] range: 0.80-2.52). Maximum force as well as the mean values of velocity and power were significantly higher for the eccentric-concentric BP compared with the concentric-only BP (all p < 0.001; ES range: 2.87-3.58). However, trivial to small differences between both BP variants were observed for mean force (ES: 0.00-0.36) as well as for maximum velocity (ES: 0.40) and power (ES: 0.41). The stretch-shortening cycle (i.e., eccentric-concentric BP) mainly enhanced force production at the early portion of the concentric phase, but this potentiation effect gradually reduced over the latter part of the movement. Finally, force was higher for the concentric-only BP during 49% of the concentric phase duration. These results suggest that both BP variants should be included during resistance training programs to optimize force output at different points of the concentric phase.

Comparison of the Force-, Velocity-, and Power-Time Curves Between the Concentric-Only and Eccentric-Concentric Bench Press Exercises.

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