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Biomechanics And Motor Control Of Human Movement

Throughout the sport-science and sports-medicine literature, the term "elite" subjects might be one of the most overused and ill-defined terms. Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort. This paper presents a 6-tiered Participant Classification Framework whereby all individuals across a spectrum of exercise backgrounds and athletic abilities can be classified. The Participant Classification Framework uses training volume and performance metrics to classify a participant to one of the following: Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; or Tier 5: World Class. We suggest the Participant Classification Framework can be used to classify participants both prospectively (as part of study participant recruitment) and retrospectively (during systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses). Discussion around how the Participant Classification Framework can be tailored toward different sports, athletes, and/or events has occurred, and sport-specific examples provided. Additional nuances such as depth of sport participation, nationality differences, and gender parity within a sport are all discussed. Finally, chronological age with reference to the junior and masters athlete, as well as the Paralympic athlete, and their inclusion within the Participant Classification Framework has also been considered. It is our intention that this framework be widely implemented to systematically classify participants in research featuring exercise, sport, performance, health, and/or fitness outcomes going forward, providing the much-needed uniformity to classification practices.

Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework.

This review covers underlying physiological characteristics and training considerations that may affect muscular strength including improving maximal force expression and time-limited force expression. Strength is underpinned by a combination of morphological and neural factors including muscle cross-sectional area and architecture, musculotendinous stiffness, motor unit recruitment, rate coding, motor unit synchronization, and neuromuscular inhibition. Although single- and multi-targeted block periodization models may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, concepts within each model must be considered within the limitations of the sport, athletes, and schedules. Bilateral training, eccentric training and accentuated eccentric loading, and variable resistance training may produce the greatest comprehensive strength adaptations. Bodyweight exercise, isolation exercises, plyometric exercise, unilateral exercise, and kettlebell training may be limited in their potential to improve maximal strength but are still relevant to strength development by challenging time-limited force expression and differentially challenging motor demands. Training to failure may not be necessary to improve maximum muscular strength and is likely not necessary for maximum gains in strength. Indeed, programming that combines heavy and light loads may improve strength and underpin other strength-power characteristics. Multiple sets appear to produce superior training benefits compared to single sets; however, an athlete’s training status and the dose–response relationship must be considered. While 2- to 5-min interset rest intervals may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, rest interval length may vary based an athlete’s training age, fiber type, and genetics. Weaker athletes should focus on developing strength before emphasizing power-type training. Stronger athletes may begin to emphasize power-type training while maintaining/improving their strength. Future research should investigate how best to implement accentuated eccentric loading and variable resistance training and examine how initial strength affects an athlete’s ability to improve their performance following various training methods.

The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations

Background/Aim - To investigate the role of eccentric knee flexor strength, between-limb imbalance and biceps femoris long head (BFlh) fascicle length on the risk of a future hamstring strain injury (HSI). Methods - Elite soccer players (n=152) from eight different teams participated. Eccentric knee flexor strength during the Nordic hamstring exercise and BFlh fascicle length were assessed at the beginning of pre-season. The occurrences of a HSI following this were recorded by the team medical staff. Relative risk (RR) was determined for univariate data, and logistic regression was employed for multivariate data. Results - Twenty-seven new HSIs were reported. Eccentric knee flexor strength below 337N (RR = 4.4; 95% CI = 1.1 to 17.5) and BFlh fascicles shorter than 10.56cm (RR = 4.1; 95% CI=1.9 to 8.7) significantly increased the risk of a subsequent HSI. Multivariate logistic regression revealed significant effects when combinations of age, previous history of HSI, eccentric knee flexor strength and BFlh fascicle length were explored. From these analyses the likelihood of a future HSI in older athletes or those with a previous HSI history was reduced if high levels of eccentric knee flexor strength and longer BFlh fascicles were present. Conclusions - The presence of short BFlh fascicles and low levels of eccentric strength in elite soccer players increase the risk of a future HSI. The greater risk of a future HSI in older players or those with a previous HSI is reduced when they possess longer BFlh fascicles and high levels of eccentric strength.

Short biceps femoris fascicles and eccentric knee flexor weakness increase the risk of hamstring injury in elite football (soccer): A prospective cohort study

The external movement loads imposed on players during competitive team sports are commonly measured using global positioning system devices. Information gleaned from analyses is employed to calibrate physical conditioning and injury prevention strategies with the external loads imposed during match play. Intense accelerations and decelerations are considered particularly important indicators of external load. However, to date, no prior meta-analysis has compared high and very high intensity acceleration and deceleration demands in elite team sports during competitive match play. The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to quantify and compare high and very high intensity acceleration vs. deceleration demands occurring during competitive match play in elite team sport contexts. A systematic review of four electronic databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) was conducted to identify peer-reviewed articles published between January 2010 and April 2018 that had reported higher intensity (> 2.5 m·s−2) accelerations and decelerations concurrently in elite team sports competitive match play. A Boolean search phrase was developed using key words synonymous to team sports (population), acceleration and deceleration (comparators) and match play (outcome). Articles only eligible for meta-analysis were those that reported either or both high (> 2.5 m·s−2) and very high (> 3.5 m·s−2) intensity accelerations and decelerations concurrently using global positioning system devices (sampling rate: ≥ 5 Hz) during elite able-bodied (mean age: ≥ 18 years) team sports competitive match play (match time: ≥ 75%). Separate inverse random-effects meta-analyses were conducted to compare: (1) standardised mean differences (SMDs) in the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations occurring during match play, and (2) SMDs of temporal changes in high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations across first and second half periods of match play. Using recent guidelines recommended for the collection, processing and reporting of global positioning system data, a checklist was produced to help inform a judgement about the methodological limitations (risk of detection bias) aligned to ‘data collection’, ‘data processing’ and ‘normative profile’ for each eligible study. For each study, each outcome was rated as either ‘low’, ‘unclear’ or ‘high’ risk of bias. A total of 19 studies met the eligibility criteria, comprising seven team sports including American Football (n = 1), Australian Football (n = 2), hockey (n = 1), rugby league (n = 4), rugby sevens (n = 3), rugby union (n = 2) and soccer (n = 6) with a total of 469 male participants (mean age: 18–29 years). Analysis showed only American Football reported a greater frequency of high (SMD = 1.26; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06–1.43) and very high (SMD = 0.19; 95% CI − 0.42 to 0.80) intensity accelerations compared to decelerations. All other sports had a greater frequency of high and very high intensity decelerations compared to accelerations, with soccer demonstrating the greatest difference for both the high (SMD = − 1.74; 95% CI − 1.28 to − 2.21) and very high (SMD = − 3.19; 95% CI − 2.05 to − 4.33) intensity categories. When examining the temporal changes from the first to the second half periods of match play, there was a small decrease in both the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations (SMD = 0.50 and 0.49, respectively) and decelerations (SMD = 0.42 and 0.46, respectively). The greatest risk of bias (40% ‘high’ risk of bias) observed across studies was in the ‘data collection’ procedures. The lowest risk of bias (35% ‘low’ risk of bias) was found in the development of a ‘normative profile’. To ensure that elite players are optimally prepared for the high-intensity accelerations and decelerations imposed during competitive match play, it is imperative that players are exposed to comparable demands under controlled training conditions. The results of this meta-analysis, accordingly, can inform practical training designs. Finally, guidelines and recommendations for conducting future research, using global positioning system devices, are suggested.

/pdf/high-intensity-acceleration-and-deceleration-demands-in-2xfbgi13u4.pdf

High-Intensity Acceleration and Deceleration Demands in Elite Team Sports Competitive Match Play: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

Changes in medial gastrocnemius muscle-tendon interaction following 8 weeks of resistance training

We are grateful for the feedback provided by Dr Jean-Benoit Morin [1] and colleagues in relation to our recently published review article regarding lower limb mechanical properties [2]. The primary purpose of this short reply is to reiterate the aims of the original review article and to provide a sound rationale for excluding the references subsequently put forward by Dr Morin and colleagues, in order to address any confusion over the focus of this review that may have arisen. Although Dr Morin and colleagues appear to accept that the review in question deals with musculotendinous unit (MTU) component stiffness, they still appear at a loss for the omission of certain specific articles. This is somewhat disappointing, as we clearly outline the aims of the review in many places within the article as follows:
As clearly outlined in the abstract of the original review article, and reiterated on several occasions within the main sections of the article, the primary aim of the paper was to r ...

Authors' reply to Morin and colleagues: "Lower limb mechanical properties: significant references omitted".

Within the profession of strength and conditioning, there is a general lack of formalised guidance and resources concerned with methods of analysing and visually presenting key fitness test data. This is despite collecting, analysing, interpreting and reporting key fitness test results throughout the sporting season falling within the remit of the contemporary strength and conditioning practitioner. Although the precise resources available to practitioners will vary, this chapter discusses some data analysis and presentation options that involve relatively rudamentary methods which can be executed using widely available software such as Microsoft Excel. This chapter builds on the fitness-testing considerations explored in Chapter 10 and focuses on how to: (1) convert fitness test results of differing measurement units to standardise scores; (2) interpret standardised scores via the creation of ‘performance bands’; (3) utilise a traffic-light system to illuminate these performance bands; and finally (4) present multiple fitness test results within a single visually striking chart. 

Analysis and presentation of fitness test results

This chapter begins by introducing the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), describing its underpinning mechanisms and explaining the influence of muscle–tendon stiffness (MTS) on SSC function. The chapter then describes the different levels at which MTS can be directly or indirectly measured during SSC tasks that involve the entire lower limb(s) such as running, jumping and hopping. The following section provides a commentary on the effects of MTS on performance outcomes measured during running, jumping and hopping, which serves to inform practitioners of the benefits and limitations of performing these tasks with a stiff or compliant limb strategy. The chapter concludes by summarising the results of contemporary training studies to inform training recommendations. The information presented in this chapter should, therefore, help practitioners with the design of their training programmes aimed at developing task-specific SSC function. 

Stretch-shortening cycle and muscle–tendon stiffness

Practices and perceptions in hamstring training for injury risk mitigation: A survey-based mixed-methods analysis

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