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Biomechanics And Motor Control Of Human Movement

Throughout the sport-science and sports-medicine literature, the term "elite" subjects might be one of the most overused and ill-defined terms. Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort. This paper presents a 6-tiered Participant Classification Framework whereby all individuals across a spectrum of exercise backgrounds and athletic abilities can be classified. The Participant Classification Framework uses training volume and performance metrics to classify a participant to one of the following: Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; or Tier 5: World Class. We suggest the Participant Classification Framework can be used to classify participants both prospectively (as part of study participant recruitment) and retrospectively (during systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses). Discussion around how the Participant Classification Framework can be tailored toward different sports, athletes, and/or events has occurred, and sport-specific examples provided. Additional nuances such as depth of sport participation, nationality differences, and gender parity within a sport are all discussed. Finally, chronological age with reference to the junior and masters athlete, as well as the Paralympic athlete, and their inclusion within the Participant Classification Framework has also been considered. It is our intention that this framework be widely implemented to systematically classify participants in research featuring exercise, sport, performance, health, and/or fitness outcomes going forward, providing the much-needed uniformity to classification practices.

Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework.

This review covers underlying physiological characteristics and training considerations that may affect muscular strength including improving maximal force expression and time-limited force expression. Strength is underpinned by a combination of morphological and neural factors including muscle cross-sectional area and architecture, musculotendinous stiffness, motor unit recruitment, rate coding, motor unit synchronization, and neuromuscular inhibition. Although single- and multi-targeted block periodization models may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, concepts within each model must be considered within the limitations of the sport, athletes, and schedules. Bilateral training, eccentric training and accentuated eccentric loading, and variable resistance training may produce the greatest comprehensive strength adaptations. Bodyweight exercise, isolation exercises, plyometric exercise, unilateral exercise, and kettlebell training may be limited in their potential to improve maximal strength but are still relevant to strength development by challenging time-limited force expression and differentially challenging motor demands. Training to failure may not be necessary to improve maximum muscular strength and is likely not necessary for maximum gains in strength. Indeed, programming that combines heavy and light loads may improve strength and underpin other strength-power characteristics. Multiple sets appear to produce superior training benefits compared to single sets; however, an athlete’s training status and the dose–response relationship must be considered. While 2- to 5-min interset rest intervals may produce the greatest strength-power benefits, rest interval length may vary based an athlete’s training age, fiber type, and genetics. Weaker athletes should focus on developing strength before emphasizing power-type training. Stronger athletes may begin to emphasize power-type training while maintaining/improving their strength. Future research should investigate how best to implement accentuated eccentric loading and variable resistance training and examine how initial strength affects an athlete’s ability to improve their performance following various training methods.

The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations

Background/Aim - To investigate the role of eccentric knee flexor strength, between-limb imbalance and biceps femoris long head (BFlh) fascicle length on the risk of a future hamstring strain injury (HSI). Methods - Elite soccer players (n=152) from eight different teams participated. Eccentric knee flexor strength during the Nordic hamstring exercise and BFlh fascicle length were assessed at the beginning of pre-season. The occurrences of a HSI following this were recorded by the team medical staff. Relative risk (RR) was determined for univariate data, and logistic regression was employed for multivariate data. Results - Twenty-seven new HSIs were reported. Eccentric knee flexor strength below 337N (RR = 4.4; 95% CI = 1.1 to 17.5) and BFlh fascicles shorter than 10.56cm (RR = 4.1; 95% CI=1.9 to 8.7) significantly increased the risk of a subsequent HSI. Multivariate logistic regression revealed significant effects when combinations of age, previous history of HSI, eccentric knee flexor strength and BFlh fascicle length were explored. From these analyses the likelihood of a future HSI in older athletes or those with a previous HSI history was reduced if high levels of eccentric knee flexor strength and longer BFlh fascicles were present. Conclusions - The presence of short BFlh fascicles and low levels of eccentric strength in elite soccer players increase the risk of a future HSI. The greater risk of a future HSI in older players or those with a previous HSI is reduced when they possess longer BFlh fascicles and high levels of eccentric strength.

Short biceps femoris fascicles and eccentric knee flexor weakness increase the risk of hamstring injury in elite football (soccer): A prospective cohort study

The external movement loads imposed on players during competitive team sports are commonly measured using global positioning system devices. Information gleaned from analyses is employed to calibrate physical conditioning and injury prevention strategies with the external loads imposed during match play. Intense accelerations and decelerations are considered particularly important indicators of external load. However, to date, no prior meta-analysis has compared high and very high intensity acceleration and deceleration demands in elite team sports during competitive match play. The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to quantify and compare high and very high intensity acceleration vs. deceleration demands occurring during competitive match play in elite team sport contexts. A systematic review of four electronic databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) was conducted to identify peer-reviewed articles published between January 2010 and April 2018 that had reported higher intensity (> 2.5 m·s−2) accelerations and decelerations concurrently in elite team sports competitive match play. A Boolean search phrase was developed using key words synonymous to team sports (population), acceleration and deceleration (comparators) and match play (outcome). Articles only eligible for meta-analysis were those that reported either or both high (> 2.5 m·s−2) and very high (> 3.5 m·s−2) intensity accelerations and decelerations concurrently using global positioning system devices (sampling rate: ≥ 5 Hz) during elite able-bodied (mean age: ≥ 18 years) team sports competitive match play (match time: ≥ 75%). Separate inverse random-effects meta-analyses were conducted to compare: (1) standardised mean differences (SMDs) in the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations occurring during match play, and (2) SMDs of temporal changes in high and very high intensity accelerations and decelerations across first and second half periods of match play. Using recent guidelines recommended for the collection, processing and reporting of global positioning system data, a checklist was produced to help inform a judgement about the methodological limitations (risk of detection bias) aligned to ‘data collection’, ‘data processing’ and ‘normative profile’ for each eligible study. For each study, each outcome was rated as either ‘low’, ‘unclear’ or ‘high’ risk of bias. A total of 19 studies met the eligibility criteria, comprising seven team sports including American Football (n = 1), Australian Football (n = 2), hockey (n = 1), rugby league (n = 4), rugby sevens (n = 3), rugby union (n = 2) and soccer (n = 6) with a total of 469 male participants (mean age: 18–29 years). Analysis showed only American Football reported a greater frequency of high (SMD = 1.26; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06–1.43) and very high (SMD = 0.19; 95% CI − 0.42 to 0.80) intensity accelerations compared to decelerations. All other sports had a greater frequency of high and very high intensity decelerations compared to accelerations, with soccer demonstrating the greatest difference for both the high (SMD = − 1.74; 95% CI − 1.28 to − 2.21) and very high (SMD = − 3.19; 95% CI − 2.05 to − 4.33) intensity categories. When examining the temporal changes from the first to the second half periods of match play, there was a small decrease in both the frequency of high and very high intensity accelerations (SMD = 0.50 and 0.49, respectively) and decelerations (SMD = 0.42 and 0.46, respectively). The greatest risk of bias (40% ‘high’ risk of bias) observed across studies was in the ‘data collection’ procedures. The lowest risk of bias (35% ‘low’ risk of bias) was found in the development of a ‘normative profile’. To ensure that elite players are optimally prepared for the high-intensity accelerations and decelerations imposed during competitive match play, it is imperative that players are exposed to comparable demands under controlled training conditions. The results of this meta-analysis, accordingly, can inform practical training designs. Finally, guidelines and recommendations for conducting future research, using global positioning system devices, are suggested.

/pdf/high-intensity-acceleration-and-deceleration-demands-in-2xfbgi13u4.pdf

High-Intensity Acceleration and Deceleration Demands in Elite Team Sports Competitive Match Play: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text. Abstract Meechan, D, McMahon, JJ, Suchomel, TJ, and Comfort, P. The effect of rest redistribution on kinetic and kinematic variables during the countermovement shrug. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): 1358–1366, 2023—This study compared the effects of rest redistribution (RR) on kinetic and kinematic variables during the countermovement shrug (CMS). Twenty-one male subjects (age 27.2 ± 3.3. years, height 1.78 ± 0.07 m, body mass 77.2 ± 10.6 kg, relative 1 repetition maximum (1RM) power clean [PC] 1.22 ± 0.16 kg·kg−1) performed the CMS using 140% of 1RM PC with 3 traditional sets of 6 repetitions (TS), 9 sets of 2 repetitions with RR [45 s rest after 2 repetitions] (RR45), and 6 sets of 3 repetitions with RR [72 s rest after 3 repetitions] (RR72). There were no significant or meaningful differences (p > 0.05, g = 0.00–0.15) between set configurations for any variables for the average of the 18 repetitions. There were no significant (p > 0.05) or meaningful (g = 0.00–0.14) differences for configuration and configuration × set for peak (PF) and mean force (MF), peak velocity (PV), impulse, phase duration, peak velocity decline, peak velocity maintenance, and rating of perceived exertion. There was significantly greater (p = 0.034) albeit small (g = 0.15) difference for mean velocity (MV) during TS compared with RR72. There were no significant or meaningful differences (p > 0.05, g = 0.00–0.09) between sets for PF, MF, PV, MV, impulse, and duration across TS, RR45, and RR72. Rest redistribution protocols did not result in greater kinetics or kinematics during the CMS compared with TS, when total rest time was equated. Thus, shorter more frequent rest periods during the CMS may not be required to maintain force-time characteristics.

The Effect of Rest Redistribution on Kinetic and Kinematic Variables During the Countermovement Shrug

The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the between-trial reliability of peak force (PF) and mean force (MF) during the Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) performed on the Nordbord and determine bilateral differences in PF, MF and instantaneous force (IF). Nineteen strength-trained males performed three NHEs on the Nordbord. PF showed a trivial-small non-significant increase between trials (d = 0.15 – 0.29, p = 0.125 – 0.459), MF was significantly higher in the left limb in trial 3 compared to trial 1 (p = 0.021 d = 0.29). Reliability and variability of PF was moderate-excellent (95%CI ICC = 0.666 – 0.926) and acceptable (CV <10%), respectively, MF was poor-good (95%CI ICC = 0.413 – 0.835) and unacceptable (CV >10%) across trials. Reliability and variability of PF and MF, between trials 2 and 3 were moderate-excellent (95%CI ICC = 0.627 – 0.950,) and acceptable (CV <10%). No between limb-differences in PF were observed (p = 0.071; d = 0.16), however, significant-small differences (p = 0.005; d = 0.34) were evident in MF. IF was higher for the right limb between 10 and 89% of normalized time across trials 1-3 but was not significant across trials 2-3. There were no significant (p ≥0.05) between limb differences in PF, but significant-small between limb differences in MF (p = 0.005, d = 0.26-0.34). Reliability of Nordbord PF were moderate-excellent; however. Practitioners should use >3 repetitions of the NHE and disregard the first repetition, while including analysis of MF and IF.

/pdf/reliability-and-comparison-of-force-characteristics-of-the-1h1nmort76.pdf

Reliability and comparison of force characteristics of the Nordic hamstring exercise

The purpose of this study was to provide an isokinetic strength profile of female soccer players and examine whether limb preference influences bilateral and reciprocal knee joint muscle balance. Gravity corrected isokinetic (60°·s-1) concentric and eccentric momentangle profiles of both limbs were collected from 25 female soccer players from the 2nd tier of English women’s soccer. Bilateral muscle imbalances were present, but limb preference only had small effects on muscle strength asymmetry and reciprocal muscle balance ratios. Trivial to small non-significant differences between preferred and non-preferred limbs were observed throughout isokinetic range for each muscle group in each mode, suggesting that injury mitigation strategies for female soccer players should focus on developing global knee extensor and flexor strength, rather than on regional strength deficits.

/pdf/isokinetic-strength-profile-of-female-soccer-players-between-3ffldlm13x.pdf

Isokinetic strength profile of female soccer players: between limb comparisons.

Eccentric strength in the lower extremity has been identified as a key performance component in the horizontal jumps (Graham-Smith & Lees, 2005). Whilst isokinetic dynamometry provides a safe and reliable method of testing maximal eccentric strength, it is often criticised as being non functional due to testing at constant angular velocity and being an open kinetic chain movement (Baltzopoulos & Brodie, 1989; Augustsson & Thomee, 2000). Therefore, eccentric leg strength measured during isokinetic testing may have limited transfer to functional performance. Lower extremity stiffness, such as vertical stiffness and knee joint stiffness (Farley et al., 1998) and knee joint moment, can be calculated during functional movements utilising force platforms, motion analysis and inverse dynamics. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between isokinetic eccentric leg strength and measures of lower extremity stiffness and knee joint moment during a single leg hop for distance test.

/pdf/relationship-between-lower-extremity-stiffness-and-eccentric-cbr2xii8xh.pdf

Relationship between lower extremity stiffness and eccentric leg strength in horizontal jumpers

Stretch-shortening cycle and muscle-tendon stiffness

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