The taxonomic treatment of trace fossils needs a uniform approach, independent of the ethologic groups concerned. To this aim, trace fossils are rigorously defined with regard to biological taxa and physical sedimentary structures. Potential ichnotaxobases are evaluated, with morphology resulting as the most important criterion. For trace fossils related to bioerosion and herbivory, substrate plays a key role, as well as composition for coprolites. Size, producer, age, facies and preservation are rejected as ichnotaxobases. Separate names for undertracks and other poorly preserved material should gradually be replaced by ichnotaxa based on well-preserved specimens. Recent traces may be identified using established trace fossil taxa but new names can only be based on fossil material, even if the distinction between recent and fossil may frequently remain arbitrary. It is stressed that ichnotaxa must not be incorporated into biological taxa in systematics. Composite trace fossil structures (complex structures made by the combined activity of two or more species) have no ichnotaxonomic standing but compound traces (complex structures made by one individual tracemaker) may be named separately under certain provisions. The following emendations are proposed to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: The term ‘work of an animal' should be deleted from the code, and ichnotaxa should be based solely on trace fossils as defined herein.

Names for trace fossils: a uniform approach

The San Francisco Bay/Delta Estuary hosts more nonindigenous species than are known for any other estuary, with 212 established species, 15 species too recently arrived to determine whether they have become established, and 125 cryptogenic species (species which could be either native or introduced). Nonindigenous organisms dominate many habitats, accounting for 40% to 100% of the common species in benthic and fouling communities. On average one new species has become established every 36 weeks since 1850, increasing to one new species every 24 weeks since 1970. Nonidigenous species have altered habitats, disrupted food webs, and contributed to the eradication or reduction of native populations. Some intentionally introduced fish and two accidentally introduced clams supported commercial fisheries that have since declined or closed. Most economic effects have been negative, including over $600 million damage from a wood-boring clam, reduced vessel speed and increased fuel consumption from hull fouling, and costs of controlling nonindigenous plants and fish. Nonindigneous species, by contributing to the endangerment of native species, and by destabilizing and making the ecosystem less manageable, are a factor in increasing restrictions on water diversions, levee maintenance, channel dredging and other economic activities in and near the Estuary.

/pdf/nonindigenous-aquatic-species-in-a-united-states-estuary-a-41ldqi144d.pdf

Nonindigenous aquatic species in a United States estuary: a case study of the biological invasions of the San Francisco Bay and delta

The osteologjof over 160 species of fossil and Recent plectognath or tetraodontiform fishes is described and illustrated in relation to the supposed phylogeny and proposed higher classiflcation (subfamilial to ordinal levels) of this group of approximately 320 Recent species of primarily tropical and temperate forms of the Atlantic. Pacific, and Indian oceans. The history of the classification and of the previous work on the osteology of the order is reviewed, while one new species (^Acanthopleurus collettei, Oligocene of Canton Glarus. Switzerland) and one new genus {lEotetraodon, Eocene of Monte Bolca. Italy) are described. Comparative inclusive and exclusive definitions are given for all higher categories based on both external and internal anatomical features. The Order Pleetognathi (Tetraodontiformes) is divided into two suborders, the Sclerodermi or Balistoidei and the Gymnodontes or Tetraodontoidei, with a variety of other infraordinal and superfamilial categories, and 10 families, with subfamilial groupings in 4 of the latter.

/pdf/osteology-phylogeny-and-higher-classification-of-the-fishes-wrb9ebkftb.pdf

Osteology, phylogeny, and higher classification of the fishes of the order Plectognathi (Tetraodontiformes)

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews the physiology and ecology of marine bryozoans and presents the latest research in these fields to marine biologists generally rather than to bryozoologists particularly Three classes are recognized: Phylactolaemata, Stenolaemata, and Gymnolaemata The first of these is confined to fresh water; the second comprises those bryozoans with slender, tubular, calcified walls; the third is the dominant and most diverse marine class A new bryozoan colony normally arises from a sexually produced larva In stenolaemates the larva metamorphoses into the proancestrula, a hemispherical body that later elongates to form a tubular extension housing the polypide Colony form in erect, branching species is known to be labile Harmelin has studied the relationships between the branching pattern of the cyclostomes “Idmonea” atlantica and environmental factors The chapter discusses the reproduction, larvae and metamorphosis of marine bryozoans The larval organization completely breaks down during metamorphosis and, in Electra, a new structure, the ancestrula or primary zooid of the colony, arises in its place During metamorphosis, which has been described by Atkins, there is a reversal of internal polarity: the distal end of the polypide and the blastogenic face of the ancestrula correspond to the posterior of the larva The geographical distribution of marine bryozoans is discussed in the chapter

Physiology and Ecology of Marine Bryozoans

Marine borers are nearly ubiquitous in the modern seabed. Their distinctive excavations provide abundant potential trace fossils, and their general erosional activities (bioerosion) are important factors in marine sedimentation and benthic ecology.

Borings As Trace Fossils, and the Processes of Marine Bioerosion

Taxonomic Atlas of the benthic fauna of the Santa Maria Basin and western Santa Barbara Channel. The Bryozoa.

Current investigations of the three principal families of ectoproct bryozoan burrowers has shown that while two of the families, the Terebriporidae and the Immergentiidae, belong to the minor Order Ctenostomata, the third family, Penetrantiidae, previously considered a ctenostome, actually belongs to the major Order Cheilostomata. The implications of this are important; we have considered the burrowing bryozoans to be a small obscure group, specialized for the burrowing mode of existence. We must now consider the possibility that there may be many more species of burrowing bryozoans as yet undiscovered, that they occur in at least two of the three bryozoan orders, and that burrowing constitutes an important ecological niche or mode of adaptation for the bryozoans. While such a change may seem to be merely a taxonomic maneuver, itmay also serve to emphasize the diversity of the ectoproct bryozoan groups which do burrow, and perhaps encourage research on them. At present we are making progress describing the living species, their anatomy and histology. We still know almost nothing about how they penetrate the substrate, nothing about possible effects upon the host organism, and nothing about their means of geographical distribution, although they seem to occur worldwide, burrowing primarily in molluscan shells.

Systematics and Biogeography of Burrowing Bryozoans

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Acknowledgments ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Abbreviations ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 SOULE HAWAIIAN EXPEDITION STATION LIST .................... . 371 SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Family Smittinidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Hemismittoidea, New Genus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Hemismittoidea corallinea, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Hemismittoidea osburni, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Smittoidea Osburn, 1952 ........... ... ... .. ... ... . . 379 Smittoidea pacifica, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Parasmittina Osburn, 1952 .......... .. .............. . 382 Parasmittina crosslandi (Hastings), 1930 ...... . .. . . . . .. . . . . . 382 Parasmittina triangularis, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Parasmittina alanbanneri, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Parasmittina serrula, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Parasmittina circularis, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Parasmittina areolata (Canu and Bassler), 1927 ...... . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Parasmittina uncinata, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Parasmittina parviuncinata, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Parasmittina decorata, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Parasmittina delicatula (Busk), 1884 ........ . .. .. .. . .. .. . . 401 Parasmittina emersoni, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Parasmittina marsupialis (Busk), 1884 ....... .. . .. . .. . .. . . . 407 Parasmittina leviavicularia, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Parasmittina parsevaliformis, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Cellepora raigii Audouin, 1826 ......... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 414 Parasmittina raigii, sensu lato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Parasmittina sp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Parasmittina kauaiensis, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Parasmittina hastingsae, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Parasmittina raigiformis, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Parasmittina ilioensis, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Parasmittina dolabrata, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Parasmittina trispinosa (Johnston): Osburn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Parasmittina californica (Robertson): Osburn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Smittina Norman, 1903 ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Smittina kukuiula, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Pleurocodonellina, New Genus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Pleurocodonellina lahainae, New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Codonellina anatina (Canu and Bassler), 1927 ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 CONCLUSIONS ................................. . 432 LITERATURE CITED ............. .... ... .... .... .. . 437

Morphology and speciation of Hawaiian and eastern Pacific Smittinidae (Bryozoa, Ectoprocta). Bulletin of the AMNH ; v. 152, article 6

13 – Fouling and Bioadhesion: Life Strategies of Bryozoans

The Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) of Scammon's Lagoon, Baja California, Mexico. American Museum novitates ; no. 2199

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