A theory of norms and normality is presented and applied to some phenomena of emotional responses, social judgment, and conversations about causes. Norms are assumed to be constructed ad hoc by recruiting specific representations. Category norms are derived by recruiting exemplars. Specific objects or events generate their own norms by retrieval of similar experiences stored in memory or by construction of counterfactual alternatives. The normality of a stimulus is evaluated by comparing it to the norms that it evokes after the fact, rather than to precomputed expectations. Norm theory is applied in analyses of the enhanced emotional response to events that have abnormal causes, of the generation of predictions and inferences from observations of behavior, and of the role of norms in causal questions and answers. This article is concerned with category norms that represent knowledge of concepts and with stimulus norms that govern comparative judgments and designate experiences as surprising. In the tradition of adaptation level theory (Appley, 1971; Helson, 1964), the concept of norm is applied to events that range in complexity from single visual displays to social interactions. We first propose a model of an activation process that produces norms, then explore the role of norms in social cognition. The central idea of the present treatment is that norms are computed after the event rather than in advance. We sketch a supplement to the generally accepted idea that events in the stream of experience are interpreted and evaluated by consulting precomputed schemas and frames of reference. The view developed here is that each stimulus selectively recruits its own alternatives (Garner, 1962, 1970) and is interpreted in a rich context of remembered and constructed representations of what it could have been, might have been, or should have been. Thus, each event brings its own frame of reference into being. We also explore the idea that knowledge of categories (e.g., "encounters with Jim") can be derived on-line by selectively evoking stored representations of discrete episodes and exemplars. The present model assumes that a number of representations can be recruited in parallel, by either a stimulus event or an

https://www3.canyons.edu/faculty/rafterm/0%200LLI%20LOVEandLOSS/Day%206%20Files/1986%20-%20Norm%20Theory%20-%20Comparing%20Reality%20to%20Its%20Alternatives.pdf

Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives

Sets of similar objects are common occurrences—a crowd of people, a bunch of bananas, a copse of trees, a shelf of books, a line of cars. Each item in the set may be distinct, highly visible, and discriminable. But when we look away from the set, what information do we have? The current article starts to address this question by introducing the idea of a set representation. This idea was tested using two new paradigms: mean discrimination and member identification. Three experiments using sets of different-sized spots showed that observers know a set's mean quite accurately but know little about the individual items, except their range. Taken together, these results suggest that the visual system represents the overall statistical, and not individual, properties of sets.

Seeing Sets: Representation by Statistical Properties

This paper investigates the temporal dependencies of natural vision by measuring eye and hand movements while subjects made a sandwich. The phenomenon of change blindness suggests these temporal dependencies might be limited. Our observations are largely consistent with this, suggesting that much natural vision can be accomplished with "just-in-time" representations. However, we also observe several aspects of performance that point to the need for some representation of the spatial structure of the scene that is built up over different fixations. Patterns of eye-hand coordination and fixation sequences suggest the need for planning and coordinating movements over a period of a few seconds. This planning must be in a coordinate frame that is independent of eye position, and thus requires a representation of the spatial structure in a scene that is built up over different fixations.

Visual memory and motor planning in a natural task.

The present study examined the effect of a size-contrast illusion (Ebbinghaus or Titchener Circles Illusion) on visual perception and the visual control of grasping movements. Seventeen right-handed participants picked up and, on other trials, estimated the size of "poker-chip" disks, which functioned as the target circles in a three-dimensional version of the illusion. In the estimation condition, subjects indicated how big they thought the target was by separating their thumb and forefinger to match the target's size. After initial viewing, no visual feedback from the hand or the target was available. Scaling of grip aperture was found to be strongly correlated with the physical size of the disks, while manual estimations of disk size were biased in the direction of the illusion. Evidently, grip aperture is calibrated to the true size of an object, even when perception of object size is distorted by a pictorial illusion, a result that is consistent with recent suggestions that visually guided prehension and visual perception are mediated by separate visual pathways.

http://www.utdallas.edu/~tres/neuroII/yanagi.pdf

The Effect of Pictorial Illusion on Prehension and Perception

ments that may provide insight into how information from the eyes is actually used. Then we report the results of three experiments designed to answer several questions about the role of eye movements and visual information in the control of limb movements. The answers to these questions have a number of important implications. In particular, they may lead to a better understanding of the mechanisms that mediate aimed limb movements—a type of behavior that most people produce many times each day. The answers may also help to increase our understanding of the relation between the perceptual and motor systems, which serve as the primary interface between people and their environment.

/pdf/eye-hand-coordination-oculomotor-control-in-rapid-aimed-limb-58dea7xakc.pdf

Eye-hand coordination: oculomotor control in rapid aimed limb movements.

Information used by the perceptual and oculomotor systems regarding the amplitude of saccadic and pursuit eye movements.

Photographic exposure meters may be used to take reasonably accurate photometric measurements for laboratory purposes if corrections for deviations of the photosensitive elements from the spectral response of CIE standard observer are made. A series of nomographs which directly convert exposure meter readings to log foot Lamberts are provided for the two most commonly available types of meter. These nomographs incorporate the required corrections for both source and cell characteristics.

/pdf/the-use-of-photographic-exposure-meters-as-photometers-2ko96nba8k.pdf

The use of photographic exposure meters as photometers

Size contrast occurs in numerous configurations where a test figure appears apparently larger when surrounded by small elements and apparently smaller when surrounded by large elements. Using the Ebbinghaus illusion, the magnitude of this effect is shown to vary as a function of apparent similarity between test and inducing element. It has long been known that estimates of perceptual magnitude are never made in isolation, but rather are made relative to all of the other stimuli which form its context. Thus, a S·ft 10-in. sports announcer looks very short when interviewing a team of basketball players, but very tall when interviewing a group of race horse jockeys. This effect was first introduced by Helmholtz (1866), who noted that clearly perceived sensory differences tend to be exaggerated, a general phenomenon which he called contrast. Thus, the apparent size of the sports announcer is affected by size contrast, which exaggerates his relative tallness or shortness against the surrounding context of athletes. Since Helmholtz introduced the concept, it has been elaborated by Wundt (1894) into the law ofrelativity, and given a quantiative formulation by Helson (1964), in terms of adaptation level theory. The notion that we judge the sensory magnitude of stimuli against the magnitude of the surrounding context of stimuli has been used to explain some varieties of visual illusions. Thus, Fig. 1A shows the Ebbinghaus illusion (frequently called Titchner's circles), in which the central circle surrounded by large inducing elements appears smaller than the central circle surrounded by the small elements. Massaro and Anderson (1971) and Girgus, Coren, and Agdern (1972) have shown that the apparent size of the central test elements varies systematically with the size of the context elements. There is good evidence that such size contrast distortions are due to active comparative judgmental processes. Restle

/pdf/size-contrast-as-a-function-of-figural-similarity-2qe15tut0c.pdf

Size contrast as a function of figural similarity.

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Information used by the perceptual and oculomotor systems regarding the amplitude of saccadic and pursuit eye movements.

The use of photographic exposure meters as photometers

Size contrast as a function of figural similarity.