Tornadic thunderstorms are the most intense and most damaging type of convective storm. Whereas ordinary convective cells grow, produce rain, and then decay over a period of 40 rain to an hour, certain thunderstorms may develop into a nearly steady-state structure that persists for several hours, producing heavy rain, large hail, damaging surface winds, and tornadoes. Although tornadoes may arise in a variety of storm conditions, these long-lived storms produce tornadoes most frequently and generate virtually all of the most damaging ones. Prominent features of these tornadic thunderstorms, which are particularly common i the Great Plains and midwestern regions of the United States, are illustrated in an idealized schematic in Figure 1. Our understanding of tornadic storms has evolved gradually over the years as technological advances have been made in observing systems and computer models. The first indications that certain storms exhibit a special behavior came from early studies of data from upper-air soundings and surface stations. While most thunderstorms moved with the mean winds over the lower and middle troposphere (Byers & Braham 1949), certain large storms were found to propagate consistently to the right of the mean winds (Byers 1942, Newton & Katz 1958). Observing the shift in the wind direction as storms passed by surface stations, Byers (1942) and later Brooks (1949) surmised that these intense storms have cyclonic ci rculation (counterclockwise rotation about a vertical axis, viewed from above). Using data from scanning radar and ground observations, case studies of a severe thunderstorm near Wokingham, England (Browning Ludlam 1962), and another near Geary, Oklahoma (Browning & Donaldson 1963), revealed numerous distinctive features that were strikingly

Dynamics of tornadic thunderstorms

Groundwater balance estimation in karst by using a conceptual rainfall-runoff model

The effect of urban development on local thermal climate is ostensibly well documented in scientific literature. Since the nineteenth century, observations of “urban-rural” air temperature differences (∆Tu-r), or urban heat island magnitudes, have been reported for hundreds of cities worldwide. The historical and geographical scope of the heat island literature is impressive. Over time, however, methodologists have raised concerns about the rigor and authenticity of that literature, especially regarding the definition, measurement, and reporting of heat island magnitudes. Indiscriminate use of “urban” and “rural” by heat island investigators to describe their field sites is a particular concern. Much confusion now surrounds the physical and cultural characteristics of so-called urban and rural sites in heat island literature. This thesis confronts these concerns through two approaches. The first approach synthesizes and evaluates a sample of 190 observational heat island studies from the period 1950 to 2007. The synthesis uses nine criteria of scientific method and communication to critically assess the experimental quality of each study. Results are discouraging: the mean quality score of the literature sample is just 50 percent, and nearly one-half of the reported heat island magnitudes are judged to be scientifically indefensible on account of incomplete or incompetent reporting. The second approach develops a landscape classification system to standardize reporting of heat island field sites and temperatures in all cities. The local climate zone (LCZ) system comprises 17 zones and is the first comprehensive climate-based classification of urban and rural landscapes for heat island investigators. Each zone represents an area that is local in scale and unique in land cover, building morphology, and screen-level thermal climate. Results show that the new classification leads to a

Redefining the urban heat island

Spatial-temporal variations in blue and green water resources, water footprints and water scarcities in a large river basin: a case for the Yellow River Basin

. Empirical ecological response surfaces were derived for eight dominant tree species in the boreal forest region of Canada. Stepwise logistic regression was used to model species dominance as a response to five climatic predictor variables. The predictor variables (annual snowfall, degree-days, absolute minimum temperature, annual soil moisture deficit, and actual evapotranspiration summed over the summer months) influence the response of plants more directly than the annual or monthly measures of temperature and precipitation commonly used in response surface modeling. The response surfaces provided estimates of the probability of species dominance across the spatial extent of North America with a high degree of success. Much of the variation in the probability of dominance is apparently related to the species' individualistic response to climatic constraints within different airmass regions.



A forest type classification for the Canadian boreal forest region was derived by a cluster analysis based on the probability estimates. Five major forest types were distinguished by the application of a stopping rule. The predicted forest types showed a high degree of geographic correspondence with the distribution of forest types in the actual vegetation mosaic. The distribution of the predicted types also bears a direct relationship to seasonal airmass dynamics in the boreal forest region.

Ecological response surfaces for North American boreal tree species and their use in forest classification

A formula for estimating the evapotranspiration rate from temperature and relative humidity data is given. Results of some tests of the accuracy of the equation indicate that it is better than other equations based on a similar number of variables. The accuracy was not as good as equations requiring more variables for their utilization, however. It was found from an investigation of the amount of water required for crop production that average yields of corn, soybeans and wheat were obtained when the total precipitation during the growing season averaged 72% of the maximum evapotranspiration. This average actual evapotranspiration rate may be more appropriate than potential evapotranspiration for some general purposes such as assessing the water resources of undeveloped countries, or determining the aridity indices in climatic studies.

Pan Evaporation, Potential and Actual Evapotranspiration

Dual-Doppler radar data were analyzed for three different times during the life cycle of a severe thunderstorm. The thunderstorm developed a double vortex inside as a tornado was generated beneath the cloud. The organized kinematic and precipitation internal structure of the thunderstorm support a theoretical double-vortex thunderstorm model that was developed earlier. The horizontal perturbation and relative winds, vertical winds, horizontal divergence and vorticity are compared for the three different times of measurement. The measurements and theoretical model provide new explanations of the severe thunderstorm and the relationship of associated tornadoes.

Severe Thunderstorm Internal Structure from Dual-Doppler Radar Measurements.

A comparison of urban climatic modifications in three cities.

An investigation of the damage resulting from the tornado in Topeka, Kans. on June 8, 1966 was conducted in an effort to determine the most protected areas of dwellings during this tornado. Inspection of 28 full basements under severely damaged houses and houses blown away revealed that some variation of unsafe areas did occur. The north-east section was somewhat safer than other locations although this was not statistically significant. Results based on observations of 17 walk-out basements showed that the north section of the basement was significantly safer than other locations. The walk-out basements faced the southwest which was also the direction from which the storm came. Investigation of the damage to the first floor of 90 houses which had both safe and unsafe areas showed the north and central sections were significantly safer than other locations.

Tornado damage patterns in topeka, kansas, june 8, 1966

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Pan Evaporation, Potential and Actual Evapotranspiration

Severe Thunderstorm Internal Structure from Dual-Doppler Radar Measurements.

A comparison of urban climatic modifications in three cities.

Tornado damage patterns in topeka, kansas, june 8, 1966