Neurotransmitter maps are important complements to anatomical maps and represent an invaluable resource to understand nervous system function and development. We report here a comprehensive map of neurons in the C. elegans nervous system that contain the neurotransmitter GABA, revealing twice as many GABA-positive neuron classes as previously reported. We define previously unknown glia-like cells that take up GABA, as well as 'GABA uptake neurons' which do not synthesize GABA but take it up from the extracellular environment, and we map the expression of previously uncharacterized ionotropic GABA receptors. We use the map of GABA-positive neurons for a comprehensive analysis of transcriptional regulators that define the GABA phenotype. We synthesize our findings of specification of GABAergic neurons with previous reports on the specification of glutamatergic and cholinergic neurons into a nervous system-wide regulatory map which defines neurotransmitter specification mechanisms for more than half of all neuron classes in C. elegans.

/pdf/a-cellular-and-regulatory-map-of-the-cholinergic-nervous-o3n1qk940u.pdf

A cellular and regulatory map of the cholinergic nervous system of C. elegans

The ~100 MB genome of C. elegans codes for ~20,000 protein-coding genes many of which are required for the function of the nervous system, composed of 302 neurons in the adult hermaphrodite and of 383 neurons in the adult male. In addition to housekeeping genes, a differentiated neuron is thought to express many hundreds if not thousands of genes that define its functional properties. These genes code for ion channels, G-protein-coupled receptors, neurotransmitter-synthesizing enzymes, transporters and receptors, neuropeptides and their receptors, cell adhesion molecules, motor proteins, signaling molecules and many others. Collectively such genes have been referred to as "terminal differentiation genes" or "effector genes". The differential expression of distinct combinations of terminal differentiation genes define different neuron types. This paper provides a compendium of more than 2,800 putative terminal differentiation genes. One pervasive theme revealed by the analysis of many gene families is the nematode-specific expansions of many neuron function-related gene families, including, for example, many types of ion channel families, sensory receptors and neurotransmitter receptors. The gene lists provided here can serve multiple purposes. They can serve as quick reference guides for individual gene families or they can be used to mine large datasets (e.g., expression datasets) for genes with likely functions in the nervous system. They also serve as a starting point for future projects. For example, a comprehensive understanding of the regulation of the often complex expression patterns of these genes in the nervous system will eventually explain how nervous systems are built.

/pdf/the-neuronal-genome-of-caenorhabditis-elegans-wvxiri6fm6.pdf

The neuronal genome of Caenorhabditis elegans

Nested Neuronal Dynamics Orchestrate a Behavioral Hierarchy across Timescales.

The function of neuronal circuits relies on the properties of individual neuronal cells and their synapses. We propose that a substantial degree of synapse formation and function is instructed by molecular codes resulting from transcriptional programmes. Recent studies on the Neurexin protein family and its ligands provide fundamental insight into how synapses are assembled and remodelled, how synaptic properties are specified and how single gene mutations associated with neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders might modify the operation of neuronal circuits and behaviour. In this Review, we first summarize insights into Neurexin function obtained from various model organisms. We then discuss the mechanisms and logic of the cell type-specific regulation of Neurexin isoforms, in particular at the level of alternative mRNA splicing. Finally, we propose a conceptual framework for how combinations of synaptic protein isoforms act as 'senders' and 'readers' to instruct synapse formation and the acquisition of cell type-specific and synapse-specific functional properties.

Neurexins: molecular codes for shaping neuronal synapses.

Sex differences in behaviour extend to cognitive-like processes such as learning, but the underlying dimorphisms in neural circuit development and organization that generate these behavioural differences are largely unknown. Here we define at the single-cell level-from development, through neural circuit connectivity, to function-the neural basis of a sex-specific learning in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. We show that sexual conditioning, a form of associative learning, requires a pair of male-specific interneurons whose progenitors are fully differentiated glia. These neurons are generated during sexual maturation and incorporated into pre-exisiting sex-shared circuits to couple chemotactic responses to reproductive priorities. Our findings reveal a general role for glia as neural progenitors across metazoan taxa and demonstrate that the addition of sex-specific neuron types to brain circuits during sexual maturation is an important mechanism for the generation of sexually dimorphic plasticity in learning.

Glia-derived neurons are required for sex-specific learning in C. elegans

The neurexin superfamily of Caenorhabditis elegans.

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The neurexin superfamily of Caenorhabditis elegans.