Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of polymer chains containing large amounts of water in their structure. Hydrogels have received significant attention in biomedical applications owing to their attractive physicochemical properties, including flexibility, softness, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Different natural and synthetic polymers have been intensely explored in developing hydrogels for the desired applications. Biopolymers-based hydrogels have advantages over synthetic polymers regarding improved cellular activity and weak immune response. These properties can be further improved by grafting with other polymers or adding nanomaterials, and they structurally mimic the living tissue environments, which opens their broad applicability. The hydrogels can be physically or chemically cross-linked depending on the structure. The use of different biopolymers-based hydrogels in biomedical applications has been reviewed and discussed earlier. However, no report is still available to comprehensively introduce the synthesis, advantages, disadvantages, and biomedical applications of biopolymers-based hydrogels from the material point of view. Herein, we systematically overview different synthesis methods of hydrogels and provide a holistic approach to biopolymers-based hydrogels for biomedical applications, especially in bone regeneration, wound healing, drug delivery, bioimaging, and therapy. The current challenges and prospects of biopolymers-based hydrogels are highlighted rationally, giving an insight into the progress of these hydrogels and their practical applications. 

Recent advances in biopolymer-based hydrogels and their potential biomedical applications

Progress in preparation and properties of chitosan-based hydrogels.

Chitosan is a promising naturally derived polysaccharide to be used in hydrogel forms for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. The multifunctional chitosan-based hydrogels have attractive properties such as the ability to encapsulate, carry, and release the drug, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenicity. In this review, the advanced functions of the chitosan-based hydrogels are summarized, with emphasis on fabrications and resultant properties reported in literature from the recent decade. The recent progress in the applications of drug delivery, tissue engineering, disease treatments, and biosensors are reviewed. Current challenges and future development direction of the chitosan-based hydrogels for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications are prospected.

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Recent Development of Functional Chitosan-Based Hydrogels for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

Optimizin the efficient light‐trapping in the photothermal conversion by enhancing localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) is crucial in improving light‐heat‐conversion efficiency of Ti3C2Tx MXene. However, its susceptibility to oxidation makes it prone to oxides formation, diminishing its metallic properties and significantly reducing the LSPR effect. This work synthesizes a kind of air‐stable hybrid Ti3C2Tx MXenes by a synergistic densification strategy that incorporates sulfhydryl‐bonding between organic and inorganic parts by reacting Ti3C2Tx MXene with thiocarboxylic acids. The resultant shortening of electron transport pathways, enhanced charge density, and the generation of additional electronic states around the Fermi level collectively contribute to an augmented LSPR effect. Additionally, the hybrid Ti3C2Tx MXenes also demonstrate high‐temperature resistance and reduced water interactions. These combined effects substantially elevate photothermal conversion efficiency through thiocarboxylic acids modification, reaching a photothermal evaporation rate of 1.77 kg m−2 h−1 with 94.56% efficiency in hybrid Ti3C2Tx MXenes. The approach paves the way for the design and development of a three‐in‐one strategy for photothermal conversion.

Synergistic Densification in Hybrid Organic‐Inorganic MXenes for Optimized Photothermal Conversion

Chitin-derived biochar with nitrogen doping to activate persulfate for phenol degradation: Application potential and electron transfer pathway in system

Ionic crosslinking of alginate/carboxymethyl chitosan fluorescent hydrogel for bacterial detection and sterilization.

Synergistically photothermal Au Nanoprisms@MXene enable adaptive solar modulation of HA-PNIPAM hydrogels for smart window

Organic redox‐active polymers are promising electrode alternatives to Li‐ion batteries using transition‐metal resources. Such metal‐free electrode materials suffer realistically from low electronic conductivities and insufficient utilization of active sites. Herein, thermally imidized polyimides are synthesized by polycondensation between 2,6‐diaminoanthraquinone (DAAQ) and anhydrides. A quinone‐containing polyimide (PMAQ) derived from pyromellitic dianhydride and DAAQ is found to exhibit the highest capacity and rate performance. Furthermore, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are encapsulated in densely interlaced PMAQ nanoflakes by in situ polymerization to form core‐shell heterostructured composites (CNT@PMAQ). Remarkably, the CNT@PMAQ cathode delivers reversible capacities of 163 mAh g−1 at 0.05 A g−1 and 122 mAh g−1 at 5 A g−1, respectively. CNT@PMAQ is also employed as an anode with a high capacity of 1158 mAh g−1 at 0.05 A g−1. Accordingly, a symmetric full‐battery using CNT@PMAQ as bipolar electrodes is assembled that delivers a high energy density of 103 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 1801 W kg−1. This study crafts an unusual strategy to engineering macromolecular chains and building core‐shell heteroarchitectures to unlock the barrier of low utilization ratio of active sites toward high‐rate charge storage. Coupling bipolar electrode materials into symmetric full batteries will further stimulate the development of low‐cost sustainable batteries.

Rational Integration of Carbon Nanotubes into Chain‐Engineered Bipolar Polyimides as Core‐Shell Heterostructured Electrodes for Polymer‐Based Symmetrical Full Batteries

Preparation of biomimetic hair-like composite coatings with water-collecting and superamphiphobic properties

Preparation of boron-containing chitosan derivative and its application as intumescent flame retardant for epoxy resin

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