Calcium phosphate (CaP) bioceramics are widely used in the field of bone regeneration, both in orthopedics and in dentistry, due to their good biocompatibility, osseointegration and osteoconduction. The aim of this article is to review the history, structure, properties and clinical applications of these materials, whether they are in the form of bone cements, paste, scaffolds, or coatings. Major analytical techniques for characterization of CaPs, in vitro and in vivo tests, and the requirements of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and international standards from CaP coatings on orthopedic and dental endosseous implants, are also summarized, along with the possible effect of sterilization on these materials. CaP coating technologies are summarized, with a focus on electrochemical processes. Theories on the formation of transient precursor phases in biomineralization, the dissolution and reprecipitation as bone of CaPs are discussed. A wide variety of CaPs are presented, from the individual phases to nano-CaP, biphasic and triphasic CaP formulations, composite CaP coatings and cements, functionally graded materials (FGMs), and antibacterial CaPs. We conclude by foreseeing the future of CaPs.

Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics: A Review of Their History, Structure, Properties, Coating Technologies and Biomedical Applications.

https://pure.mpg.de/pubman/item/item_2225903_3/component/file_2261322/2225903.pdf

Calcium phosphates in biomedical applications: materials for the future?

β-tricalcium phosphate for bone substitution: Synthesis and properties

The present overview is intended to point the readers' attention to the important subject of calcium orthophosphates. This type of materials is of special significance for human beings, because they represent the inorganic part of major normal (bones, teeth and antlers) and pathological (i.e., those appearing due to various diseases) calcified tissues of mammals. For example, atherosclerosis results in blood vessel blockage caused by a solid composite of cholesterol with calcium orthophosphates, while dental caries and osteoporosis mean a partial decalcification of teeth and bones, respectively, that results in replacement of a less soluble and harder biological apatite by more soluble and softer calcium hydrogenphosphates. Therefore, the processes of both normal and pathological calcifications are just an in vivo crystallization of calcium orthophosphates. Similarly, dental caries and osteoporosis might be considered an in vivo dissolution of calcium orthophosphates. Thus, calcium orthophosphates hold a great significance for humankind, and in this paper, an overview on the current knowledge on this subject is provided.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.4161/biom.18790

Calcium orthophosphates: Occurrence, properties, biomineralization, pathological calcification and biomimetic applications

Amorphous calcium (ortho)phosphates.

Amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) is an important intermediate phase during the biomineralization of apatite. But the detailed mechanism of transformation from ACP to crystallized hydroxyapatite (H...

Evolution of Amorphous Calcium Phosphate to Hydroxyapatite Probed by Gold Nanoparticles

Different from the conventional solution precipitation, amorphous precursor involves widely in biomineralizations. It is believed that the development of crystalline structures with a well-defined shape in biological systems is essentially facilitated by the occurrence of these transient amorphous phases. However, the previous studies have not elucidated the physicochemical factors influencing the transformation from the transient phase into the stable phase. In this study, the evolutions from the amorphous calcium phosphate to the different-shaped (hexagon and octahedron; octahedron is an unexpected morphology of the crystal with space group of R3c) single crystals of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) were examined. The hexagonal β-TCP crystals were formed via the phase transformation of amorphous precursor in CaCl2−Na2HPO4-ethylene glycol solution; however, the octahedral β-TCP crystals were formed in Ca(OH)2-(NH4)2HPO4-ethylene glycol solution. Because the interfacial energies between amorphous phase and...

Controls of Tricalcium Phosphate Single-Crystal Formation from Its Amorphous Precursor by Interfacial Energy

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Evolution of Amorphous Calcium Phosphate to Hydroxyapatite Probed by Gold Nanoparticles

Controls of Tricalcium Phosphate Single-Crystal Formation from Its Amorphous Precursor by Interfacial Energy