The HERD experiment is a future experiment for the direct detection of high-energy cosmic rays and is to be installed on the Chinese space station in 2027. The main objectives of HERD are the first direct measurement of the knee of the cosmic ray spectrum, the extension of electron+positron flux measurement up to tens of TeV, gamma ray astronomy, and the search for indirect signals of dark matter. The main component of the HERD detector is an innovative calorimeter composed of about 7500 LYSO scintillating crystals assembled in a spherical shape. Two independent readout systems of the LYSO scintillation light will be installed on each crystal: the wavelength-shifting fibers system developed by IHEP and the double photodiode readout system developed by INFN and CIEMAT. In order to measure protons in the cosmic ray knee region, we must be able to measure energy release of about 250 TeV in a single crystal. In addition, in order to calibrate the system, we need to measure typical releases of minimum ionizing particles that are about 30 MeV. Thus, the readout systems should have a dynamic range of about 107. In this article, we analyze the development and the performance of the double photodiode readout system. In particular, we show the performance of a prototype readout by the double photodiode system for electromagnetic showers as measured during a beam test carried out at the CERN SPS in October 2021 with high-energy electron beams.

Double Photodiode Readout System for the Calorimeter of the HERD Experiment: Challenges and New Horizons in Technology for the Direct Detection of High-Energy Cosmic Rays

The HERD (High Energy cosmic-Radiation Detector) experiment is a future space based experiment for the direct detection of high energy cosmic rays. It will be installed on the Chinese space station in 2027. The detector is based on a homogeneous, isotropic, deep and 3D segmented calorimeter, surrounded by multiple sub-detectors for charge, timing and track measurement. Thanks to its innovative geometry, the detector will be capable to detect particles from all directions having a large geometric acceptance. Together with a good energy resolution, this will provide the detector an effective geometric factor about one order of magnitude larger than that of current space experiments for protons and electrons detection. Thanks to this feature, the HERD experiment will measure cosmic ray proton flux up to 1 PeV, performing the first direct measurement of the cosmic ray knee region. In addition HERD will measure electron+positron flux up to tens of TeV, and will search for possible indirect signals of dark matter and local sources of electrons and positrons. These energy limits, for protons and electrons, will be more than one order of magnitude higher than that of the current space experiments. Moreover, measuring high energy photons, HERD will search for sources of high energy cosmic rays and for indirect signals of dark matter. 

pdf/the-herd-experiment-new-frontiers-in-detection-of-high-1gqg5jo7vg.pdf

The HERD experiment: new frontiers in detection of high energy cosmic rays

Abstract The microchannel plate (MCP) is an electron multiplier with millions of micro through-holes that must withstand strong vibrations and enormous shocks in spaceborne detectors. To ensure the reliability and robustness of the MCP in space applications, we proposed an equivalent mechanical model of the MCP to investigate its mechanical properties, since the direct creation of the finite element model using the finite element method (FEM) is not feasible. Then, we developed a test system to verify the effectiveness of the equivalent mechanical model. The results show that the error of harmonic response analysis and the test result is less than 10 %, which is acceptable. Finally, we conducted parametric studies of the MCPs and obtained the equivalent mechanical model of the MCPs with different geometric parameters. This study will help researchers to optimize the MCP for aerospace-grade detectors. 

Equivalent Mechanical Model of a Microchannel Plate

Test system designed for WLSF pads of HERD calorimeter cell

Direct observation of cosmic rays nuclei is currently limited to energies of the order of hundreds of TeV. In order to extend these observations to higher energies, detectors capable of operating in space with high geometric factor and energy resolution are needed. In particular, highly performing calorimeters based on the CaloCube design can allow to carry out cosmic ray measurements in the PeV energy region. The CaloCube R&D project foresees the installation in space of a homogeneous and isotropic calorimeter composed of cubic scintillator crystals arranged to form a cube of about tons weight, with a high acceptance and capable of detecting particles coming from any direction. A prototype, composed of 5 × 5 × 18 CsI(Tl) crystals, has been tested on high-energy particle beams at CERN SPS accelerator and the results relative to the calorimeter response to protons are reported in this document. 

The CaloCube calorimeter for high-energy cosmic-ray measurements in space: Response of a large-scale prototype to protons

HERD is a future experiment for the direct detection of high energy cosmic rays. The instrument is based on a calorimeter optimized not only for a good energy resolution but also for a large acceptance. Each crystal composing the calorimeter is equipped with two read-out systems: one based on wavelength-shifting fibers and the other based on two photodiodes with different active areas assembled in a monolithic package. In this paper, we describe the photodiode read-out system, focusing on experimental requirements, design and estimated performances. Finally, we show how these features lead to the flight model project of the photodiode read-out system.

/pdf/photodiode-read-out-system-for-the-calorimeter-of-the-herd-us94udi3.pdf

Photodiode Read-Out System for the Calorimeter of the Herd Experiment

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Photodiode Read-Out System for the Calorimeter of the Herd Experiment

Double Photodiode Readout System for the Calorimeter of the HERD Experiment: Challenges and New Horizons in Technology for the Direct Detection of High-Energy Cosmic Rays