International experiences with the hospital anxiety and depression scale- a review of validation data and clinical results

偏头痛是一种很常见的神经性头痛病，由中枢神经系统兴奋性增高引起，是世界范围内失最容易影响日常生活和工作的疾病之一?诊断根据头痛的特点和相关症状作出：偏头痛对社会和经济的影响相当大，能影响患者的生活质量、工作、社会活动和家庭生活。偏头痛急性发作期和预防性治疗的方法很多。急性发作期治疗既可以是特异性(曲坦类和麦角类)的，也可以是非特异性(止痛药)的。严重影响日常生活和工作的偏头痛应当用曲坦类药物治疗。头痛频繁发作是进行预防性治疗的指征。预防性治疗可降低发作频率并改善生活质量。更多的治疗方法正在不断涌现，这为众多偏头痛仍然无法控制的患者带来了希望。

Migraine

Investigations of migraine comorbidity have confirmed its association with diverse psychiatric conditions. This association appears to be strongest for major depression and anxiety disorders (particularly panic and phobia), but increased comorbidity has also been reported with substance abuse and certain mood disorders. This literature also indicates that greater psychiatric comorbidity exists for migraine sufferers with aura than without. Some support is found for the notion that psychiatric comorbidity is higher in transformed migraine than in simple migraine (particularly in the case of chronic substance abuse). However, research into the possible mechanisms underlying these associations remains limited. Studies examining the order of onset and the cross-transmission of migraine and psychiatric disorders in families have been unable to distinguish fully between causal and common aetiological models of association. The conclusions are discussed in light of both methodological and conceptual issues relevant to understanding migraine comorbidity.

Psychiatric comorbidity in migraine: a review.

Animal models have provided a growing body of information about the pathophysiology of headaches and novel therapeutic targets. In recent years, experiments in awake animals have gained attention as more relevant headache models. Pain can be assessed in animals using behavioral alterations, which includes sensory-discriminative, affective-emotional and cognitive aspects. Spontaneous behavioral alterations such as increased grooming, freezing, eye blinking, wet dog shake and head shake and decreased locomotion, rearing, food or water consumption observed during pain episodes are oftentimes easy to translate into clinical outcomes, but are giving little information about the localization and modality of the pain. Evoked pain response such as tactile and thermal hypersensitivity measures are less translatable but gives more insight into mechanisms of action. Mechanical allodynia is usually assessed with von Frey monofilaments and dynamic aesthesiometer, and thermal allodynia can be evaluated with acetone evaporation test and Hargreaves’ test in animal models. Anxiety and depression are the most frequent comorbid diseases in headache disorders. Anxiety-like behaviors are evaluated with the open-field, elevated plus-maze or light/dark box tests. Interpretation of the latter test is challenging in migraine models, as presence of photophobia or photosensitivity can also be measured in light/dark boxes. Depressive behavior is assessed with the forced-swim or tail suspension tests. The majority of headache patients complain of cognitive symptoms and migraine is associated with poor cognitive performance in clinic-based studies. Cluster headache and tension type headache patients also exhibit a reversible cognitive dysfunction during the headache attacks. However, only a limited number of animal studies have investigated cognitive aspects of headache disorders, which remains a relatively unexplored aspect of these pathologies. Thus, the headache field has an excellent and growing selection of model systems that are likely to yield exciting advances in the future.

/pdf/behavioral-and-cognitive-animal-models-in-headache-research-1fh8uy4rq5.pdf

Behavioral and cognitive animal models in headache research.

Objective.—To examine the direct medical costs associated with migraine, when diagnosed alone and in conjunction with anxiety and/or depression in adults and children.



Background.—Migraine is a common disorder that can often be accompanied by comorbid anxiety and/or depression. Given the prevalence of migraine and the likelihood for comorbid conditions, it is not surprising that migraine is extremely costly for society.



Methods.—Migraine cohorts were identified in a 1999-2000 database capturing inpatient, outpatient, and prescription drug services from approximately 45 large employers. Four cohorts of adults (migraine only, migraine and anxiety, migraine and depression, migraine and both conditions), and two cohorts of children (migraine only, migraine and anxiety and/or depression), were compared to respective “healthy” cohorts. t-statistics were used to capture differences in costs between the migraine cohorts and the healthy cohorts whereas ANOVA was used to test for differences in costs between subgroups of migraine sufferers.



Results.—Compared to nonmigraineurs, adults and children with migraine had significantly higher total direct medical costs in all examined categories (P < .0001) ($7,089 vs $2,923 adults; $4,272 vs $1,400 children). For adults, the presence of depression and/or anxiety along with migraine equated to significantly greater total direct medical costs when compared to their matched healthy cohorts (P < .0001) ($12,642 vs $5,179 anxiety; $11,290 vs $3,135 depression). Children with migraine and either anxiety or depression (or both) incurred an average of $9,875 in total direct medical costs as compared with only $1,165 for healthy comparators. For children and adults, the presence of comorbid anxiety or depression was associated with significantly higher medical costs when compared to migraine alone (P < .0001).



Conclusions.—This analysis quantifies the economic impact of a migraine diagnosis for both adults and children. The results of this analysis demonstrate that individuals identified as migraineurs have significantly higher medical costs than healthy comparators, with or without comorbid anxiety and/or depression. This study also suggests that clinicians should be aware that while proper treatment of migraine with effective acute and prophylactic therapy is important, attention must also be directed to comorbid conditions.

The medical costs of migraine and comorbid anxiety and depression.

The present study examined the prevalence and severity of anxiety and depression among people with migraine. To obtain a spectrum of migraine experience two potentially different samples were identified: over 600 patients attending migraine clinics and 87 migraine sufferers in the general population. International Headache Society criteria were used to establish the diagnosis of migraine. Anxiety and depression were measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale and studies using this scale in other patient groups were identified for comparison. Approximately 50% of subjects experienced anxiety and 20% experienced depression, rates which were consistent across the two study groups. This prevalence of psychological morbidity is unexpectedly high and comparable to that measured in patients with other diseases. There is no evidence that it is correlated with frequency of migraine attacks. Anxiety and depression are common among people with migraine and remain largely unrecognized. Future studies should identify contributory factors.

Anxiety and Depression in Migraine

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Anxiety and Depression in Migraine