Canaanites Reading Hieroglyphs. Horus is Hathor? - The Invention of the Alphabet in Sinai

Northern Mesopotamia and Syria

THE RULE OF THE MILITARY KING Out of the struggles to regain her independence and her ascendancy over the warlike nations of Western Asia, Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty emerged, for the first time in her history, as a predominantly military state under the rule of a king dedicated from early youth to the leadership of his army and navy and to the expansion and consolidation of his empire by force of arms. Elevated while scarcely more than a boy to the rank of commander-in-chief of the armed forces, the heir apparent to the Egyptian throne under Tuthmosis I and his successors devoted a considerable portion of his early years to training himself in the arts of war. Proficiency as an archer, a charioteer, and a ship-handler, achieved under the supervision of his father's veterans, ranked high among the qualifications demanded of the future king and were the accomplishments in which throughout his life he took his greatest pride. Experience in actual combat followed shortly after the young ruler's accession to the throne, an occasion almost invariably seized upon by the princes of Nubia and Asia to revolt against their Egyptian overlord. Following the conquests of Tuthmosis III one or two campaigns usually sufficed to restore order throughout the empire and eliminated the need for further show of force on the part of the pharaoh. Nevertheless, the military point of view remained with the king throughout his reign and profoundly affected the nature of his government and the internal conditions of the land which he governed.

Egypt: internal affairs from tuthmosis i to the death of amenophis iii

THE PROBLEM OF THE INDO-EUROPEANS For several thousand years before the third millennium b.c. the new way of life based on agriculture, which had developed in the Near East and perhaps also in certain adjacent areas, spread out of these regions into lands which lay around them. There is no doubt that it was disseminated mainly by peoples or smaller groups who migrated out of its original centres. Then the trend was largely reversed. In the third millennium ‘barbarians’ moved into Mesopotamia. Semites from poorer lands to the west settled in the south in such numbers that their language superseded that of the Sumerians, although they adopted Sumerian civilization. Gutian invaders from the highlands to the east ruled southern Iraq during the twenty-second century, but they proved less assimilable and were eventually expelled. After c . 2000 b.c. similar intrusions had more important results. The infiltration of Semitic tribes, ‘Amorites’, from Syria into Mesopotamia continued, but the migrations which caused the greatest changes appear to have come from further north. In many cases the names of the incoming peoples have not been preserved in the records of older civilized states or in documents in their own languages. The earliest of them spoke languages of various types and affiliations. But most of those who came from the north and who are identified for the first time after c . 2000 b.c. spoke languages which belong to the ‘Indo-European’ family.

Immigrants from the north

Since the discovery of the Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni Hasan and their subsequent publication, one image found there has given rise to considerable scholarly literature regarding its interpretation in terms of the history, economy, and society of the southern Levant.1 Referenced and discussed by Egyptologists, Syro-Palestinian archaeologists, historians, and biblical scholars alike, this scene from the Beni Hasan tombs occurs repeatedly in textbooks, scholarly articles, and popular discussions, thereby vesting it with an interpretative breadth that is almost unparalleled.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/679590

Interpretative Uses and Abuses of the Beni Hasan Tomb Painting

Semites in Egyptian Mining Expeditions to Sinai

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Semites in Egyptian Mining Expeditions to Sinai