The general host selection behavior of parasitoid Hymenoptera and a comparison of initial strategies utilized by larvaphagous and oophagous species.

In the enriched carbon dioxide atmosphere expected in the next century, many species of herbivo- rous insects will confront less nutritious host plants that will induce both lengthened larval developmental times and greater mortality. The limited data currently available suggest that the effect of increased atmo- spheric CO 2 on herbivory will be not only highly species-specific but also specific to each insect-plant system. Several scenarios can be predicted, however: (1) local extinctions will occur; (2) the endangered species status as well as the pest status of some insect species will change; (3) geographic distributions for some insect spe- cies will shift with host-plant ranges; and (4) changes in the population dynamics of affected insect species will influence their interactions with other insects and plants. For insect conservation purposes, it is critical to begin long-term studies on the effects of enhanced CO 2 levels on insect populations. An analysis of the avail- able literature indicates that many orders containing insect species important for ecosystem conservation, and even those important as agricultural or medical pests, have not been examined. Without a major in- crease in research on this topic, we will be unprepared for the species changes that will occur, we will lose the opportunity to document just how some insects adapt to elevated CO 2 levels, and we will lack the informa- tion necessary for effective conservation efforts.

http://faculty.ucr.edu/~john/24%20Cons.Biol.pdf

Effects of Elevated Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Insect-Plant Interactions

Selecting arthropod biological control agents against arthropod pests: Can the science be improved to decrease the risk of releasing ineffective agents?

The Scelionidae is a large family of parasitic Hymenoptera whose members specialize in egg parasitism of insects and arachnids. Many of the characteristics considered most desirable in a natural enemy can be found within members of this family. Species have been studied which demonstrate high searching abilities and reproductive rates, lack of hyperparasitoids, have synchrony with host populations, have positive host-density responsiveness, have simple adult diets, and can be reared easily. The advancements made in rearing techniques for these natural enemies should prove valuable in the future both in classical biological control and in augmentative efforts. Research which has been done indicates that a variety of approaches are possible for augmenting scelionid populations. These range from simple innundative releases to manipulation of preferred nectar-bearing plants. Although fewer than 30 species have been used in classical biological control attempts, several of these have produced excellent results. The interaction of scelionid wasps with various insect management tactics is discussed. In general, scelionids interact well with insecticide applications due to the protective nature of host egg choria. The number of known scelionid species represents only a fraction of those estimated to be in existence. The results of biological control efforts undertaken with known species suggests that much potential exists within the Scelionidae.

Scelionid wasps as biological control agents: a review

The classical biological control technique of introducing two or more populations of the same species of beneficial agent to increase the genetic diversity of that species (and so increase the chances of achieving a successful project) is reviewed. From standard literature sources, all cases of multiple introductions of conspecific populations against insect targets were listed and the effect of subsequent introductions on the outcome of the project was recorded. Of 178 projects identified, involving 417 separate importations, only 11 (6.2%) were successful through a second or later importation of the same morphologically defined species of beneficial agent. Of these, five involved host-related "strains" that are likely to be cryptic species, so the success rate for the introduction of conspecific populations falls to 3.4%. The possibility that some (or even all) of the other six cases also involved cryptic species awaits investigation. Our analysis demonstrates that introducing two or more populations of...

"Strains" and the classical biological control of insect pests

Strains of Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) Hymenoptera: Scelionidae, an egg parasitoid of the green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula (L.), were obtained from three regions of Australia and from Homestead, Florida (USA). Percent parasitoid emergence was approximately the same for freezer-stored (-75°C) and fresh eggs, and freezer-stored eggs were suitable hosts for a longer time.



Optimum host age, oviposition and emergence patterns, mean number of progeny per female, sex ratio and longevity were examined and certain comparisons were made between the Australian and USA parasitoids. Genetic crosses made between males and females of each strain revealed that reproductive isolation did not occur.



Higher fecundity of the Australian strains may make them more successful than indigenous (USA) strains for controlling pest populations of N. viridula in the southern USA.

Biology of Australian and United States strains of Trissolcus basalis, a parasitoid of the green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula

The suitability of physiological day (PD) and heating degree day (HDD) models for predicting development of Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston), an egg parasitoid of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), was determined under laboratory and field conditions. Predictions of peak numbers of parasitoid emergency by both HDD and PD models were similar and closely correlated with observed peak development for constant temperatures between 21 and 32°C. The use of HDD equation more closely predicted the development of T. basalis in the field. Percent emergence of parasitoids was significantly increased by precipitation.

Use of Heating Degree Day and Physiological Day Equations for Predicting Development of the Parasitoid Trissolcus basalis

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Biology of Australian and United States strains of Trissolcus basalis, a parasitoid of the green vegetable bug, Nezara viridula

Use of Heating Degree Day and Physiological Day Equations for Predicting Development of the Parasitoid Trissolcus basalis