This study emphasizes the need for standardized measurement tools for human robot interaction (HRI). If we are to make progress in this field then we must be able to compare the results from different studies. A literature review has been performed on the measurements of five key concepts in HRI: anthropomorphism, animacy, likeability, perceived intelligence, and perceived safety. The results have been distilled into five consistent questionnaires using semantic differential scales. We report reliability and validity indicators based on several empirical studies that used these questionnaires. It is our hope that these questionnaires can be used by robot developers to monitor their progress. Psychologists are invited to further develop the questionnaires by adding new concepts, and to conduct further validations where it appears necessary.

/pdf/measurement-instruments-for-the-anthropomorphism-animacy-55eaghvgd4.pdf

Measurement instruments for the anthropomorphism, animacy, likeability, perceived intelligence, and perceived safety of robots

Within an embodied cognition framework, it is argued that presence in a virtual environment (VE) develops from the construction of a spatial-functional mental model of the VE. Two cognitive processes lead to this model: the representation of bodily actions as possible actions in the VE, and the suppression of incompatible sensory input. It is hypothesized that the conscious sense of presence reflects these two components as spatial presence and involvement. This prediction was confirmed in two studies (N = 246 and N = 296) assessing self-reports of presence and immersion experiences. Additionally, judgments of “realness” were observed as a third presence component. A second-order factor analysis showed a distinction between presence, immersion, and interaction factors. Building on these results, a thirteen-item presence scale consisting of three independent components was developed and verified using confirmatory factor analyses across the two studies.

/pdf/the-experience-of-presence-factor-analytic-insights-1bdjc5px2a.pdf

The Experience of Presence: Factor Analytic Insights

At a time of increased social usage of net and collaborative applications, a robust and detailed theory of social presence could contribute to our understanding of social behavior in mediated environments, allow researchers to predict and measure differences among media interfaces, and guide the design of new social environments and interfaces. A broader theory of social presence can guide more valid and reliable measures. The article reviews, classifies, and critiques existing theories and measures of social presence. A set of criteria and scope conditions is proposed to help remedy limitations in past theories and measures and to provide a contribution to a more robust theory and measure of social presence.

Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: review and suggested criteria

Immersive virtual environments can break the deep, everyday connection between where our senses tell us we are and where we are actually located and whom we are with. The concept of 'presence' refers to the phenomenon of behaving and feeling as if we are in the virtual world created by computer displays. In this article, we argue that presence is worthy of study by neuroscientists, and that it might aid the study of perception and consciousness.

/pdf/from-presence-to-consciousness-through-virtual-reality-3c3tfypz7n.pdf

From presence to consciousness through virtual reality

Immersion is the subjective impression that one is participating in a comprehensive, realistic experience. Interactive media now enable various degrees of digital immersion. The more a virtual immersive experience is based on design strategies that combine actional, symbolic, and sensory factors, the greater the participant's suspension of disbelief that she or he is "inside" a digitally enhanced setting. Studies have shown that immersion in a digital environment can enhance education in at least three ways: by allowing multiple perspectives, situated learning, and transfer. Further studies are needed on the capabilities of immersive media for learning, on the instructional designs best suited to each type of immersive medium, and on the learning strengths and preferences these media develop in users.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/323/5910/66.full.pdf

Immersive interfaces for engagement and learning.

The presence research community would benefit from a reliable and valid cross-media presence measure that allows results from different laboratories to be compared and a more comprehensive knowledge base to be developed. The ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI) is a new state questionnaire measure whose development has been informed by previous research on the determinants of presence and current self-report measures. It focuses on users' experiences of media, with no reference to objective system parameters. More than 600 people completed the ITC-SOPI following an experience with one of a range of noninteractive and interactive media. Exploratory analysis (principal axis factoring) revealed four factors: Sense of Physical Space, Engagement, Ecological Validity, and Negative Effects. Relations between the factors and the consistency of the factor structure with others reported in the literature are discussed. Preliminary analyses described here demonstrate that the ITC-SOPI is reliable and valid, but more rigorous testing of its psychometric properties and applicability to interactive virtual environments is required. Subject to satisfactory confirmatory analyses, the ITC-SOPI will offer researchers using a range of media systems a tool with which to measure four facets of a media experience that are putatively related to presence.

/pdf/a-cross-media-presence-questionnaire-the-itc-sense-of-5d51kh3elx.pdf

A Cross-Media Presence Questionnaire: The ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory

Summary • Previous studies have attempted to measure presence using simple post-test rating scales (e.g., Slater, Usoh & Steed, 1994; Barfield & Hendrix, 1996). • The stability of simple post-test ratings has been questioned (Freeman Avons, Pearson & IJsselsteijn, 1999). • More detailed, carefully piloted and psychometrically-sound questionnaires offer a solution to potential instabilities in simple post-test ratings. This approach has been adopted by Schubert, Friedmann and Regenbrecht (1999), Witmer and Singer (1998), and Kim and Biocca (1997). • These attempts have limitations, such as restricted media applications. • We present research documenting the development of a new cross-media presence questionnaire - the ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory (ITC-SOPI). • Preliminary results indicate four components: Physical Space, Engagement, Naturalness and Negative Effects. 1 Introduction Until recently, the subjective state of presence has been measured using between one and three simple post-test rating scales that require judgements comparing either: (i) the mediated experience to real life (Hendrix & Barfield, 1996; Slater & Usoh, 1994; Slater, Usoh & Steed, 1994), or (ii) one mediated environment to another (e.g., Welch, Blackmon, Liu, Mellers & Stark, 1996). Typically, the rating scales have been comprised of statements relating to the extent to which an individual: (i) feels physically located in a given mediated space, (ii) senses that a mediated environment "becomes more real, or present, compared to the real [

Development of a New Cross-Media Presence Questionnaire: The ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory

AIMS: To test the prediction arising from the incentive-sensitization model of addiction that when tested immediately after smoking, smokers will show heightened attention to words with appetitive and aversive motivational significance compared with their performance during acute abstinence.

DESIGN: Twenty-one smokers were each tested twice, once just after smoking and once after overnight abstinence, on three versions of the modified Stroop task which required colour naming of words with either neutral, appetitive or aversive connotations. Ten non-smokers were tested once.

SETTING: All participants were tested in a quiet experimental cubicle within the psychology department.

PARTICIPANTS: Smokers comprised nine men and 12 women who had smoked at least 10 cigarettes per day for the last 6 months; non-smokers comprised five men and five women who had never smoked. All were aged between 18 and 35 years. Three smokers were excluded from the analyses because their breath CO levels suggested they had not complied with the instructions to abstain on one occasion.

MEASUREMENTS: A card-based, blocked, format was used for the modified Stroop task. Time to colour-name the words of the three motivational types, the order of which was counterbalanced across participants, was recorded.

FINDINGS: Smoking was associated with greater interference from both threat and appetitive words than from neutral words; during abstinence there was no differential effect of word type. Non-smokers performed more similarly to recent smokers.

CONCLUSIONS: This pattern suggests suppression of normal motivational responding during abstinence.

Cigarette smoking and attention to signals of reward and threat in the Stroop paradigm

In this paper ‘presence’ (a sense of ‘being there’ in a mediated environment) is proposed as a global metric with which to evaluate audio displays that are part of advanced multi-modal media systems. An evaluation of different audio mixes using a self-report measure of presence, the ITC-Sense of Presence Inventory, and standard audio/visual quality evaluations is described. The results indicate that ratings of presence and audio/visual quality are enhanced by either the addition of bass or increase in volume. However, none of the ratings (with the exception of audio-related enjoyment) were elevated by increasing the number of audio channels. Our study demonstrates that presence is a useful quality metric that can be used in conjunction with more conventional audio measures to evaluate and optimize audio displays.

/pdf/here-there-and-everywhere-the-effects-of-multichannel-audio-3xb5o6xdvm.pdf

Here, there and everywhere: The effects of multichannel audio on presence

Computer games are ideally placed to form the content of future Immersive Media, but this prospect is faced with both technical and usability issues. This paper describes an experiment in immersive gaming using a state-of-the-art computer First Person Shooter (FPS) game, in which we analyze user experience and performance through a combination of in-game metrics, questionnaires and subjective reports. We describe the evaluation of a major commercial computer game as a real-time immersive stereoscopic experience based on a four-screen CAVE-like installation. The implementation is based on a bespoke VR middleware developed on top of the game's own engine. Our results show an overwhelming subjective preference for the immersive version despite a decrease in performance attributed to a more realistic aiming mechanism. More importantly, metrics suggest that users took advantage of the immersive context rather than simply transposing their desktop gaming skills.

Immersive FPS games: user experience and performance

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