A Check List of North American Birds

Birds have long fascinated scientists and travellers, so their distribution and abundance through time have been better documented than those of other organisms. Many bird species are known to have gone extinct, but information on subspecies extinctions has never been synthesised comprehensively. We reviewed the timing, spatial patterns, trends and causes of avian extinctions on a global scale, identifying 279 ultrataxa (141 monotypic species and 138 subspecies of polytypic species) that have gone extinct since 1500. Species extinctions peaked in the early 20th century, then fell until the mid 20th century, and have subsequently accelerated. However, extinctions of ultrataxa peaked in the second half of the 20th century. This trend reflects a consistent decline in the rate of extinctions on islands since the beginning of the 20th century, but an acceleration in the extinction rate on continents. Most losses (78.7% of species and 63.0% of subspecies) occurred on oceanic islands. Geographic foci of extinctions include the Hawaiian Islands (36 taxa), mainland Australia and islands (29 taxa), the Mascarene Islands (27 taxa), New Zealand (22 taxa) and French Polynesia (19 taxa). The major proximate drivers of extinction for both species and subspecies are invasive alien species (58.2% and 50.7% of species and subspecies, respectively), hunting (52.4% and 18.8%) and agriculture, including non-timber crops and livestock farming (14.9% and 31.9%). In general, the distribution and drivers of subspecific extinctions are similar to those for species extinctions. However, our finding that, when subspecies are considered, the extinction rate has accelerated in recent decades is both novel and alarming.

/pdf/global-patterns-and-drivers-of-avian-extinctions-at-the-2mov2r28qx.pdf

Global patterns and drivers of avian extinctions at the species and subspecies level.

Fisher knowledge as expert system : A case from the longline fishery of Grenada, the Eastern Caribbean

The build-up of species locally within a region by allopatric speciation depends on geographically separated (allopatric) sister populations becoming reproductively incompatible followed by secondary sympatry. Among birds, this has happened frequently in remote archipelagos, spectacular cases including the Darwin's finches (Geospizinae) and Hawaiian honeycreepers (Drepanidinae), but similar examples are lacking in archipelagos nearer to continental landmasses. Of the required steps in the speciation cycle, achievement of secondary sympatry appears to be limiting in near archipelagos and, by extension, in continental regions. Here, I suggest that secondary sympatry might be prevented by apparent competition mediated through pathogens that are locally coevolved with one population of host and are pathogenic in sister populations. The absence of numerous pathogens in remote archipelagos might, therefore, allow sister populations to achieve secondary sympatry more readily and thereby accelerate diversification. By similar reasoning, species should accumulate relatively slowly within continental regions. In this essay, I explore the assumptions and some implications of this model for species diversification.

/pdf/host-pathogen-coevolution-secondary-sympatry-and-species-582q8cy146.pdf

Host–pathogen coevolution, secondary sympatry and species diversification

The astonishing variation in the shape and size of bird beaks reflects a wide range of dietary specializations that played an important role in avian diversification. Among Darwin’s finches, ground finches (Geospiza spp.) have beaks that represent scaling variations of the same shape, which are generated by alterations in the signaling pathways that regulate growth of the two skeletal components of the beak: the prenasal cartilage (pnc) and the premaxillary bone (pmx). Whether this developmental mechanism is responsible for variation within groups of other closely related bird species, however, has remained unknown. Here, we report that the Caribbean bullfinches (Loxigilla spp.), which are closely related to Darwin’s finches, have independently evolved beaks of a novel shape, different from Geospiza, but also varying from each other only in scaling. However, despite sharing the same beak shape, the signaling pathways and tissues patterning Loxigilla beaks differ among the three species. In Loxigilla noctis, as in Geospiza, the pnc develops first, shaped by Bmp4 and CaM signaling, followed by the development of the pmx, regulated by TGFβIIr, β-catenin, and Dkk3 signaling. In contrast, beak morphogenesis in Loxigilla violacea and Loxigilla portoricensis is generated almost exclusively by the pmx through a mechanism in which Ihh and Bmp4 synergize to promote expansion of bone tissue. Together, our results demonstrate high flexibility in the relationship between morphology and underlying developmental causes, where different developmental programs can generate identical shapes, and similar developmental programs can pattern different shapes.

/pdf/closely-related-bird-species-demonstrate-flexibility-between-4dlu4kxiic.pdf

Closely related bird species demonstrate flexibility between beak morphology and underlying developmental programs.

This identification guide covers all the birds known to occur in the West Indies, a total of 563 species. Species texts cover all aspects of identification and include the full range of local names for the bird. Accompanying each speices text is a distribution map showing the bird's range within the West Indies. Every species is illustrated in the 86 colour plates, and many island forms" (where relevant) are also depicted. The "locality checklist" included provides an at-a-glance, island-by-island guide to the distribution and status of all species."

Birds of the West Indies

We examined the complex of populations of the Loggerhead Kingbird (Tyrannus caudifasciatus), a West Indian endemic. We separate populations in Puerto Rico and Isla Vieques (T. taylori), and Hispaniola (T. gabbii) as distinct species. Subspecific distinction is assigned to populations in Cuba, Isla de Pinos, and Cuban satellites (T. caudifasciatus caudifasciatus); Cayman Islands (T. c. caymanensis); Jamaica (T. c. jamaicensis); and the Bahamas (T. c. bahamensis) on the basis of differences in plumage coloration and pattern, size, vocalizations, and distribution.

https://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pubs/ja_iitf_2009_garrido.pdf

Taxonomy of the Loggerhead Kingbird (Tyrannus caudifasciatus) Complex (Aves: Tyrannidae)

Because bird vocalizations often reflect population differentiation and can create barriers to gene flow, ornithologists frequently rely on vocalizations for defining species limits. Our previous work on morphology and plumage variation within the Cuban Parrot ( Amazona leucocephala ) suggested greater diversity than previously recognized. Because some island populations are highly endangered, additional characters are needed to help define taxonomic units within this group. Here, we tested two hypotheses: that the flight call (a form of contact call) of parrots from each of the six extant island populations is diagnosably distinct, and that the structure of the call, as assessed by discriminant function analysis, corresponds to variation in molecular, morphological, and plumage characters (i.e., character concordance). To test these hypotheses, we spectrographically examined both qualitative and quantitative characters of the flight call of 23 individuals recorded from the six extant island populations on Abaco and Inagua (the Bahamas), Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, Cayman Brac, and Grand Cayman. As anticipated, we found the flight call of each population to be diagnosably distinct. However, when only quantitative characters were considered, flight call structure was not fully congruent with the molecular, morphological, and plumage differences that exist among island groups. Specifically, the flight calls from Grand Cayman were less distinct structurally than expected, and Cayman Brac calls were more distinct from those of Cuba and Isla de la Juventud than expected. Although diagnosability is important for examining taxonomic limits in birds, applying this principle to vocalizations may be problematic, particularly when a strong cultural component exists. This appears to be the case for psittacids, whose contact calls are subject to strong cultural influences (i.e., learning). Thus, the diagnosable differences we found among populations should not be interpreted as support for species-level differentiation. Although a more complete analysis of the cultural differences (vocal and other learned behaviors) among island populations is needed, we recommend that each population be managed not only as a separate conservation unit, but also as a culturally significant unit. Como las vocalizaciones en las aves usualmente reflejan diferencias poblacionales y pueden crear barreras al flujo genetico, los ornitologos con frecuencia se apoyan en las vocalizaciones para definir los limites de las especies. Trabajos previos en morfologia y variacion del plumaje de la Cotorra Cubana ( Amazona leucocephala ) sugieren una mayor diversidad de la reconocida previamente. Debido a que las poblaciones en algunas islas estan fuertemente amenazadas, caracteres adicionales son necesarios para ayudar a definir las unidades taxonomicas dentro de este grupo. En este trabajo se someten a prueba dos hipotesis: que la llamada durante el vuelo (una forma de llamada de contacto) de cada una de las seis poblaciones islenas remanentes son diferenciables con valor diagnostico y que la estructura de la llamada, evaluada por un analisis de funcion discriminante, corresponde con las variaciones moleculares, morfologicas y caracteres del plumaje (ej. concordancia de caracteres). Para poner a prueba estas hipotesis, se examinaron desde el punto de vista espectrografico caracteres cualitativos y cuantitativos de las llamadas de vuelo de 23 individuos grabados de poblaciones en Abaco e Inagua (Bahamas), Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, Cayman Brac y Grand Cayman. Como fue predicho, se encontro que las llamadas fueron diferentes. Sin embargo, cuando se consideraban solo caracteres cuantitativos, la estructura de la llamada de vuelo no fue totalmente congruente con las diferencias moleculares, morfologicas y diferencias de plumaje que existen entre estos grupos en las islas. Especificamente, los cantos durante el vuelo fueron menos diferentes que lo esperado, desde el punto de vista estructural, en Grand Cayman, mientras que en Cayman Brac fueron mas diferentes que lo esperado, en relacion con Cuba e Isla de la Juventud Aunque el valor diagnostico es importante para examinar los limites entre especies en las aves, aplicar este principio a las vocalizaciones puede ser problematico, particularmente cuando existe un componente cultural fuerte. Este parece ser el caso de los psitacidos, cuyo canto esta sujeto a fuertes influencias culturales (ej. aprendizaje). Por tanto, las diferencias diagnosticables encontradas entre poblaciones no deben interpretarse como apoyo para una diferenciacion a nivel de especie. Aunque un analisis mas completo de las diferencias culturales (vocales y otras conductas aprendidas) entre islas es necesario, se recomienda que cada poblacion sea manejada no solo como unidades de conservacion separadas sino tambien como unidades culturalmente significativas. Les ornithologues utilisent les vocalisations des oiseaux pour separer les especes car ils refletent souvent des differences populationnelles et peuvent etre ainsi a l’origine de limitations aux echanges genetiques. Nos precedents travaux sur les variations morphologiques et de plumage de l’Amazone de Cuba ( Amazona leucocephala ) suggerent une diversite plus forte que precedemment consideree. En raison des fortes menaces pesant sur certaines populations insulaires, il est important de pouvoir disposer de caracteres supplementaires d’identification taxonomique dans ce groupe. Nous avons teste deux hypotheses, d’une part que le cri au vol (une forme de cri de contact) des six populations insulaires pouvait etre diagnostique, et d’autre part, que la structure de ce cri, tel que decrit par analyse discriminante correspondait a des variations de caracteristiques moleculaires, morphologiques et du plumage. Pour tester ces hypotheses, nous avons analyse de les spectrogrammes des cris au vol, qualitativement et quantitativement, pour 23 oiseaux issus des six populations de Abaco et Inagua (Bahamas), de Cuba, Isla de la Juventud, Cayman Brac, et Grand Cayman. Comme anticipe, les cris au vol de chaque sous population se sont averes discriminants. Toutefois, la variabilite de la structure du cri au vol au niveau des seules caracteristiques quantitatives ne s’est pas averee totalement correlee avec les differences moleculaires, morphologiques et de plumage. En particulier, les cris au vol des oiseaux de Grand Cayman ont ete moins structurellement distincts qu'attendu, alors que ceux de Cayman Brac l'ont ete plus qu'attendu par rapport a ceux de Cuba et de l'ile de la Juventud. L’utilisation de ce type de methode bien qu’importante pour analyser les frontieres taxonomiques chez les oiseaux, peut donc s’averer problematique lorsqu’elle est appliquee aux vocalisations, en particulier lorsqu’il existe un fort facteur culturel. Cela semble etre le cas chez les Psittacides, pour lesquels existe une forte influence culturelle (comme l’apprentissage) sur les cris de contact. Ces differences diagnostiques trouvees entre les populations ne doivent donc pas etre interpretees pour justifier une difference d’espece. Bien qu’une analyse plus complete des differences culturelles (vocales ou pour d’autres comportements appris) soit necessaire, nous recommandons que chaque unite de conservation soit geree non seulement comme une unite de conservation particuliere, mais aussi comme une unite culturelle unique.

/pdf/geographic-variation-in-the-flight-call-of-the-cuban-parrot-b74n2bg1f2.pdf

Geographic variation in the flight call of the Cuban Parrot ( Amazona leucocephala ) and its taxonomic relevance

The Bird Collections of Cuba

The German naturalist Juan Cristobal Gundlach (1810–1896) conducted, while a resident of Cuba, two expeditions to Puerto Rico in 1873 and 1875–6, where he explored the southwestern, western, and northeastern regions of this island. Gundlach made repre­ sentative collections of the island’s fauna, which formed the nucleus of the first natural history museums in Puerto Rico. When the natural history museums closed, only a few specimens were passed to other institutions, including foreign museums. None of Gund­ lach’s and few of his contemporaries’ specimens have survived in Puerto Rico. We lo­ cated 191 bird specimens (43 species) collected there by Gundlach, all of which are in foreign institutions, especially Museum fur Naturkunde Berlin. Here we list all located specimens and include data associated with them. Six new species were described out of the Gundlach collections from Puerto Rico, three of which are still taxonomically recog­ nized today. Information about the types of those taxa is given.

https://zse.pensoft.net/lib/ajax_srv/article_elements_srv.php?action=download_pdf&item_id=5550

Juan Cristóbal Gundlach’s collections of Puerto Rican birds with special regard to types

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