Seaweed farming in Indonesia is carried out throughout much of the archipelago and is mainly undertaken by smallholder farmers. Indonesia is the largest global producer of the red seaweeds Kappaphycus and Eucheuma, which are used to produce carrageenan, and is a major producer of Gracilaria, which is used to produce agar. Seaweed farming is attractive to farmers in rural coastal communities because capital and operating costs are low, farming techniques are not technically demanding, labour requirements are relatively low (allowing farmers to engage in other livelihoods), and production cycles are short (30–45 days), providing regular income. Using reported values for seaweed-farming income, we conclude that seaweed farming can, but does not always, lift rural households above the Indonesian poverty line. In addition to direct financial benefits, seaweed farming also contributes to human and social capital within seaweed farming households and communities. Achieving continued economic and social benefits from seaweed farming will require additional policy development, as well as research and development to support improved and more consistent seaweed productivity and improved product quality at the farm level, provision of effective extension and technical support services, and diversification of the existing value chains in order to reduce the impacts of price fluctuations that are associated with limited global commodity chains.

Seaweed Aquaculture in Indonesia Contributes to Social and Economic Aspects of Livelihoods and Community Wellbeing

Growth and product quality of the seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii from different farming locations in Indonesia

Kappaphycus alvarezii (Red seaweed) extract (KAE) has an important bio-stimulatory role for enhancing crop productivity and improving animal nutrition and health. However, little knowledge exists on the gamut of compounds present in it and their specific bioactivities . In this study, KAE was screened for the presence of metabolites and was characterized for its association with known bioactivities. The results revealed that phytochemical compounds such as phenols (TPC = 1108.67 ± 98.51 mg GA 100 g −1 ), flavonoids (TFC = 15.26 ± 0.95 mg QE 100 g −1 ), steroids, quinones were also present apart from the primary metabolites like carbohydrates (5.70 ± 0.13 g 100 g −1 ), proteins (3.4 ± 0.94 g 100 g −1 ), lipids (2.13 ± 0.06 g 100 g −1 ), Carotenoids (0.64 ± 0.05 mg g −1 ), Ascorbic acid (2.09 ± 0.3 mg g −1 ) and antioxidant activity (DPPH = 345.96 ± 30.56 μg TE g −1 ) in the Kappaphycus alvarezii extract powder. Among the 69 compounds observed in the methanolic extract of KAE (through Q-TOF-HRMS), 34 compounds were annotated and further analyzed using mass fragmentation studies (MS/MS). In this context, kinetin , sulfabenzamide, 1-phosphatidyl-1D-myoinositol, dodecanamide and several others were found to be prominent compounds having known bioactivities such as role in plant growth promotion, hormonal signaling, photo-protection, imparting disease resistance, antioxidant, anti-microbial, and anti-herbivory properties. Many compounds annotated are also pharmaceutically important, thus indicating the vast scope seaweeds might have in varied industries. In most of the studies, primary compounds such as plant growth hormones, minerals, proteins, polysaccharides and quaternary ammonium compounds were only reported from the KAE, however the present study reports a range of other metabolites having significant biological activities. • Global metabolic profiling of Kappaphycus methanolic extract was investigated. • Quadrupole time of flight high-resolution mass spectrometer technique was employed. • 34 unique compounds were annotated to best match of <5 ppm database differences. • Annotated compounds MS/MS analyzed • Apart from kinetin, bioactive metabolites like canavanine, vigabatrin and others were annotated. 

Characterization and metabolomics profiling of Kappaphycus alvarezii seaweed extract

Seaweed extracts act as biostimulants that boost crop- productivity, −quality and ameliorate stress. The precise constituents and mechanism behind the positive responses have still remained elusive and speculative. In-depth investigation was contemplated to reveal the metabolites that become constituent of extracts after seaweed processing and appraise whether they are present in physiologically relevant concentration at a given foliar application level. The minimally processed homogenate(s) (MPHs) of Kappaphycus alvarezii (KA) and Sargassum wightii (SW) were biochemically characterized. In two different experiments, six different formulations prepared using one or both of MPHs in proportions ranging from 0 to 100 % were assayed on tomato at three dilution levels of 0 %, 0.8 %, and 1.6 %, under well-watered and soil-moisture deficit conditions. The two MPHs differed between them with respect to composition and content. The tomato yield increased over control at 0.8 % application level under both water regimes, but also increased at higher concentrations under duress. The formulations made using only one of the two seaweed MPHs (KA:SW 0:100 and 100:0) recorded 20–31 % higher yields over control, although combined formulations using at least 60 % of either of the MPHs also produced higher yield. Both the MPHs contained gallic acid, catechin hydrate, myo-inositol, mannitol, glycine, leucine, putrescine, tyramine, IAA, canavanine, and many other reported bioactive compounds having defined roles and mode of action. At the application level of 0.8 %, many of these compounds were deduced to be present in physiologically relevant concentrations. This was inferred based on the literature cited concentrations of same compounds that elicited beneficial plant response upon exogenous application in pure form. It is implied that multiple bioactive compounds in seaweed extracts act in tandem and improve plant performance in totality, despite possible synergistic or antagonistic interactions among them. The findings prescribe a scientific basis for formulating other seaweed biostimulants and determining their optimal application doses. 

Scientific basis for the use of minimally processed homogenates of Kappaphycus alvarezii (red) and Sargassum wightii (brown) seaweeds as crop biostimulants

The aim of this research is to analyze potency and generate organic fertilizer with noneconomic seaweed as material which is bioecologically environment-friendly to stimulate Gracilaria verrucosa production. By utilizing inexpensive and bioecologically beneficial material, it is expected to increase the growth, production, and repair the quality of Gracilaria verrucosa. The specific target of this research is to analyze the effectivity of an-organic fertilizers (urea) with seaweed-based liquid organic fertilizer. The hormone growth of generated urea and seaweed liquid fertilizers is analyzed, including auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, as well as nutrient (macro and micro). Moreover, the fertilizer is tested on Gracilaria verrucosa. Several noneconomic seaweeds (Codium sp., Ulva sp., Padina sp., Amphiroa sp.) are found in waters area of Sulawesi Tengah. Based on laboratory testing result, it shows that organic fertilizer which has good potency by looking at N, P, and K contents is organic fertilizer Ulva sp., with content of N (0.45 mg/L), P (7.67 mg/L), and K (11.06 mg/L). The result of the research shows that there are apparent differences between the tested treatment (p < 0.05) on Gracilaria sp., growth, and the highest testing on giving liquid fertilizer Ulva sp. (71.0 g) with dose 400 mL/15 L water. The result of Gracilaria verrucosa quality by using liquid fertilizer Ulva sp. is 40.89%, urea fertilizer 38.62%, and without fertilizer 32.57%.
 The hormone content of Ulva sp. growth is IAA (0.3961 ppm), gibberellin (36.9595 ppm), and kinetin (3.3718 ppm), and urea fertilizer contains IAA (0.4063 ppm), gibberellin (30.2047 ppm), and kinetin (0.0717 ppm).

/pdf/the-utilization-of-seaweed-based-liquid-organic-fertilizer-4d1rbs5apf.pdf

The utilization of seaweed-based liquid organic fertilizer to stimulate Gracilaria verrucosa growth and quality

Rumput  laut tidak  hanya  dapat  digunakan  sebagai  bahan pangan tetapi juga dapat digunakan sebagai pupuk organik karena rumput laut  banyak  mengandung trace mineral (Fe, B, Ca, Cu, Cl, K, Mg, dan Mn) dan juga zat  pengatur  tumbuh (ZPT) seperti auksin, sitokinin, dan giberilin yang berguna untuk memacu pertumbuhan dan meningkatkan produksi tanaman. Kandungan ZPT tersebut banyak terdapat pada thallus (batang) rumput laut dan juga di dalam SAP (konsentrat cair yang mengandung ZPT dan mineral yang berasal dari dalam thallus/xylemcells tanaman) rumput laut. Keistimewaan rumput  laut sebagai pupuk  organik adalah kandungan ZPT nya yang dapat meningkatkan produksi buah, sayuran, bunga, serta memperpanjang usia tanaman. Di samping itu, ZPT juga dapat meningkatkan daya tahan tanaman dari kekeringan, serangan serangga, dan memperbaiki struktur tanah. Penggunaan rumput laut sebagai bahan dasar pupuk saat ini belum banyak dimanfaatkan, sementara estimasi produksi rumput laut Sargassum sp. dan Eucheuma sp. sebesar 482.400 ton/thn. Apabila produksi tersebut terdiri dari 50% Sargassum sp. yang selama ini belum dimanfaatkan dan digunakan sebagai pupuk maka akan dapat mensubstitusi pupuk kimia sebanyak 242.200 Metric Ton (MT), sedangkan  dari rumput laut Eucheuma sp. dengan estimasi produksi 242.200 MT dapat menghasilkan 30% cairan SAP atau setara dengan 72.660 L pupuk cair.

https://www.bbp4b.litbang.kkp.go.id/squalen-bulletin/index.php/squalen/article/download/141/110

Prospek pemanfaatan rumput laut sebagai bahan pupuk organik

Rumput laut telah lama digunakan sebagai bahan pupuk organik karena kaya akan kandungan hormon pemacu tumbuh (HPT) dan unsur hara lainnya yang dibutuhkan tanaman. Pada penelitian ini, diidentifikasi senyawa HPT yang terkandung dalam ekstrak cairan (sap) rumput laut Eucheuma cottonii menggunakan HPLC, selanjutnya dibandingkan dengan kandungan HPT pada pupuk rumput laut komersial (berdasarkan data sekunder hasil studi literatur). Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa sap E. cottonii mengandung giberelin yang terdiri dari gibberellic acid GA3 dan GA7 sebesar 128 dan 110 ppm, sitokinin yang terdiri dari zeatin dan kinetin sebesar 117 dan 73 ppm, dan auksin berupa Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) sebesar 160 ppm. Kandungan HPT sap E. cottonii ini lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan HPT beberapa produk pupuk organik berbahan dasar rumput laut komersial. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa E. cottonii memiliki potensi untuk dikembangkan menjadi bahan pemacu pertumbuhan tanaman dalam pembuatan pupuk organik. Namun demikian, hasil pemanfaatan sisa padatan (ampas) rumput laut yang telah di ambil sapnya menjadi Alkali Treated Cottonii (ATC) menunjukkan hasil kualitas yang lebih rendah

https://www.bbp4b.litbang.kkp.go.id/jurnal-jpbkp/index.php/jpbkp/article/download/48/31

Identifikasi Hormon Pemacu Tumbuh Ekstrak Cairan (SAP) Eucheuma cottonii

Seaweeds have been used for years as organic fertilizer due to their high amount of Growth Promoting Hormones (GPH) and other nutrients required by plants. In this experiment, identification of GPH compounds in Eucheuma cottonii sap has been carried out using HPLC. The results were then compared with those of the commercial seaweed fertilizers (based on secondary data). The results showed that the sap of E. cottonii contained gibberellin i.e. gibberellic acid, GA3 and GA7 with the concentration of 128 and 110 ppm, cytokinin i.e. zeatin and kinetin of 117 and 73 ppm, and auxin i.e. indole acetic acid (IAA) of 160 ppm. In general, the sap of E. cottonii showed a higher amount of GPH than those of some commercial seaweed fertilizers, and it demonstrated a potential use of E. cottonii to be developed as a plant growth stimulant in organic fertilizer. Nevertheless, production of Alkali Treated Cottonii (ATC) using the sap extracted seaweed resulted a poorer quality.

IDENTIFIKASI HORMON PEMACU TUMBUH EKSTRAK CAIRAN (SAP) Eucheuma cottonii Identification of Growth Promoting Hormones in The Sap of Eucheuma cottonii

Liquid organic fertilizer from seaweed (Sargassum sp.) and fish waste hydrolysate. By: Jamal Basmal The combination of seaweed Sargassum sp. and fish waste hydrolysate can be used as an organic fertilizer, both in liquid or solid forms. The organic fertilizer has a complete macro and micro nutrients. It contains growth hormone factor such as auxin, cytokinine (zeatin and kinetin) and giberelin. The function of growth hormone factor in plants is to enhance the roots, stems, and leaves expansion, as well as to increase fruit production. To produce liquid organic fertilizer, seaweed has to be hydrolyzed in alkaline condition, meanwhile solid waste of fish has to be hydrolyzed in acid condition. The liquid organic fertilizer had protein value of 0.08% or equal to 0.012% N, 0.13% P, 1.22% K, 0.06% Ca, 0.17% Mg, 55.04% Fe, 122.75 ppm Mn, 1.95 ppm Cu, 24.59 ppm Zn, 13 ppm B, and 18% alginic acid. It had auxin (IAA) of 91.48 ppm, cytokinine of 84.71 ppm kinetin and of 70.27 ppm zeatin and giberellin (GA3) of 107.72 ppm.

https://www.bbp4b.litbang.kkp.go.id/squalen-bulletin/index.php/squalen/article/download/48/28

TEKNOLOGI PEMBUATAN PUPUK ORGANIK CAIR KOMBINASI HIDROLISAT RUMPUT LAUT Sargassum sp. DAN LIMBAH IKAN

Perbaikan teknik ekstraksi kappa karaginan dari rumput laul Eucheuma cottoniitelah dilakukan dengan menggunakan variasi konsentrasi larutan KOH sebagai media pengekstrak.

/pdf/pengaruh-konsentrasi-larutan-potasium-hidroksida-terhadap-68rribkwxp.pdf

PENGARUH KONSENTRASI LARUTAN POTASIUM HIDROKSIDA TERHADAP MUTU KAPPA-KARAGINAN YANG DIEKSTRAKSI DARI Eucheuma cottonii

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