This paper discusses the design procedure and first results of a large-scale magnetic air-conditioning system prototype demonstrated in a relevant environment compatible with the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 6. The prototype, which contains all components of a functional cooling system, was experimentally evaluated in an especially developed calibrated calorimeter designed according to international technical standards for testing split-type air-conditioning units. The proposed experimental analysis is one of the first to quantify the impact of external losses associated with the heat exchangers on the cooling system performance. For outdoor and indoor temperatures fixed at 35 and 27 °C, respectively, the coefficient of performance disregarding thermal, flow and mechanical losses beyond the limits of the active magnetic regenerator was 5.72, corresponding to a second-law efficiency of 20.7%. When these losses and other essential operating variables, such as the heat exchanger fan power and the valve power consumption, are included, one-order-of-magnitude reductions are observed in the performance parameters, indicating that they should not be neglected in realistic assessments of not-in-kind cooling technologies. 

A magnetocaloric air-conditioning system prototype

Based on experimental and theoretical results, the magnetic properties, magnetic phase transitions, and magnetocaloric effect (MCE) of TmNi2Si2 were studied. In this study, we confirmed that unstable antiferromagnetic interaction underwent a field-induced phase transition from meta-magnetic to ferromagnetic under magnetic fields exceeding 0.2 T in TmNi2Si2. Moreover, a large reversible cryogenic MCE was observed. The maximum magnetic entropy change (−ΔSMmax) and refrigeration capacity were found to be 15.4 J kg−1 K−1 and 68.0 J kg−1, respectively, when changing the magnetic field from 0 to 2 T. The large reversible MCE observed under the low magnetic field change indicates the potential application of TmNi2Si2 in cryogenic magnetic refrigerators. 

Unstable antiferromagnetism and large reversible magnetocaloric effect in TmNi2Si2

Large reversible magnetocaloric effects originating from ferromagnetic phase transition in Gd(Cu1-xNix)2 (x=0.12, 0.15)

This study presents an experimental analysis of the thermodynamic performance of a large-scale magnetic air-conditioning system prototype that uses a combination of La(Fe,Mn,Si)13Hz and Gd in a sixteen-bed active magnetic regenerator (AMR) assembly. The performance of the system is compared with a previous version which operated in part load with eight regenerator beds and lower flow rates. The experiments were carried out in a relevant environment, characterizing a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of 6, emulated by a calibrated calorimeter focusing on key performance metrics such as cooling capacity, coefficient of performance, and second-law efficiency. The experimental results demonstrate a maximum cooling capacity of 680 W, along with a temperature span of 8.7 K. Particularly noteworthy is the significant enhancement observed in the performance of the system when accounting for previously disregarded irreversibilities external to the active magnetic regenerators. From an AMR standpoint, the maximum values of the coefficient of performance and second law efficiency are 4.2 and 10.8%, respectively, but from the system perspective, these values are reduced to 0.41 and 0.84%, respectively. 

Thermodynamic assessment of a large-scale magnetic air conditioning prototype

La(Fe,Si,Mn)13Hz alloys are promising solid-state refrigerant candidates for room-temperature magnetocaloric refrigeration due to their giant magnetocaloric effect, adjustable Curie temperature (TC) and low rare-earth content. For enhanced efficiency, the magnetocaloric material (MCM) is configured into an active magnetic regenerator (AMR), a porous, layered component with a chemically-tuned TC gradient. The porous structure facilitates heat exchange with a working fluid. It is crucial to preserve the thermomagnetic properties, such as TC and the magnetocaloric effect intensity, during refrigeration cycles. This study conducts a systematic investigation of the stability of three batches of La(Fe,Si,Mn)13Hz magnetocaloric microparticles, each with different values of TC. The commercially available microparticles (average size about 620 µm), which simulate AMR applications, underwent a 1-year immersion in deionized water and three water mixtures with corrosion inhibitors: Entek FNE (2 % vol.), ME-1 (5 %. vol.) and ME-3 (5 % vol.). Optical and scanning electron microscopy revealed surface changes within the first week of immersion in water and later in two fluids. The TC shifted towards higher temperatures (up to 13 K) after immersion, especially in water and in the ME-3-containing medium. After 40 weeks, the Entek FNE mixture caused some damage to the magnetocaloric materials. The lattice parameter of the La(Fe,Si,Mn)13Hz magnetocaloric phase changed, and magnetic entropy decreased for most aqueous media. Only ME-1 proved effective in preserving magnetocaloric microparticle properties for all TCs over a year, making it a potential candidate for long-term prototypes and commercial products. 

Long-time aging of La(Fe,Si,Mn)13HZ microparticles using different fluids for magnetic refrigeration systems

Magnetocaloric La(Fe,Mn,Si)13hz Particles and Their Chemical Stability in Heat Transfer Fluids Employed in Magnetic Refrigeration

The literature acknowledges the advantages of Set-Based Concurrent Engineering (SBCE), but there is a lack of models for its adoption and documented cases of its implementation, mostly on products with consolidated technology, which raises the possibility of expanding SBCE for highly innovative products. These projects often have extensive resource limitations, leading to computational tools and mathematical modelling as fundamental sources of information. This paper proposes a method for model-based Trade-off Curves (ToC) generation to support SBCE. We adopted it to develop a magnetic air conditioner. The use of model-based ToC enabled the narrowing of the design space and monitoring of the design parameters and performance metrics and enabled SBCE adoption in the design process. The main contributions of this research are presenting the state-of-the-art in ToC generation and application, proposing the model, and demonstrating SBCE in highly innovative projects, while its importance lies in the opportunity to further disseminate SBCE to different development environments.

Model-based trade-off curves to support the set-based concurrent engineering of highly innovative projects

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Magnetocaloric La(Fe,Mn,Si)13hz Particles and Their Chemical Stability in Heat Transfer Fluids Employed in Magnetic Refrigeration

Model-based trade-off curves to support the set-based concurrent engineering of highly innovative projects