In this paper we summarize the evolution and contributions of superconducting magnets to particle accelerators as chronicled over the last 50 years of Particle Accelerator Conferences (PAC, NA-PAC and IPAC). We begin with an historical overview based primarily on PAC Proceedings augmented with references to key milestones in the development of superconducting magnets for particle accelerators. We then provide some illustrative examples of applications that have occurred over the past 50 years, focusing on those that have either been realized in practice or provided technical development for other projects, with discussion of possible future applications.

/pdf/superconducting-magnets-for-particle-accelerators-4310hp8884.pdf

Superconducting Magnets for Particle Accelerators

Fiber-optic thermometry has the potential to provide rapid and reliable quench detection for emerging large-scale, high-field superconducting magnets fabricated with high-temperature-superconductor (HTS) cables. Developing non-voltage-based quench detection schemes, such as fiber Bragg grating technology, are particularly important for applications such as magnetic fusion devices where a high degree of induced electromagnetic noise impose significant challenges on traditional voltage-based quench detection methods. To this end, two fiber optic quench detection techniques – fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and ultra-long fiber Bragg grating (ULFBG) – were incorporated into two VIPER high-current HTS cables and tested in the SULTAN facility, which provides high-fidelity operating conditions to large-scale superconducting magnets. During surface heater induced quench-like events under a variety of operating conditions, FBG and ULFBG demonstrated strong signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) ranging from 4 to 32 and measured single-digit temperature excursions; both the SNR and temperature sensitivity increase with temperature. Fiber thermal response times ranged between effectively instantaneous to a few seconds depending on the operating temperature. Strain sensitivity dominates the thermal sensitivity in the conditions achievable at SULTAN; however, measurements at higher quench evolution temperatures, coupled to future work to increase the thermal-to-strain signal, show promise for quench detection capability in full-scale magnets where temperature and strain may occur simultaneously. Overall, FBG and ULFBG were proven capable to quickly and reliably detect small temperature disturbances which induced quench initiation events for high current VIPER HTS conductors in realistic operating conditions, motivating further work to develop FBG and ULFGB quench detection systems for full-scale HTS magnets.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6668/abdba8/pdf

Fiber optic quench detection for large-scale HTS magnets demonstrated on VIPER cable during high-fidelity testing at the SULTAN facility

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) comprises many superconducting circuits. Most elements of these circuits require active protection. The functionality of the quench detectors was initially implemented as microcontroller based equipment. After the initial stage of the LHC operation with beams the introduction of a new type of quench detector began. This article presents briefly the main ideas and architectures applied to the design and the validation of FPGA-based quench detectors.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-0221/12/04/T04005/pdf

Design of FPGA-based radiation tolerant quench detectors for LHC

Following the analysis of the September 2008 LHC incident, the assembly process and the quality assurance of the main 13 kA interconnection splices were improved, with new measurement and diagnostics methods introduced. During the 2008-2009 shutdown ~5% of these 10 000 splices were newly assembled with these improvements implemented, but essentially maintaining the original design. It is known today that a limiting factor towards 7 TeV operation is the normal conducting resistance of ~15% of the original main 13 kA interconnection splices, associated to the electrical continuity of the copper stabiliser. A “Splices Task Force” has been set up at CERN to evaluate the need for, develop and test design improvements and prepare the implementation of a consolidation campaign. Important issues of splice design, process choice, resources and time requirements are considered.

/pdf/towards-a-consolidation-of-lhc-superconducting-splices-for-7-3harhbqz9i.pdf

Towards a Consolidation of LHC Superconducting Splices for 7 TeV Operation

The first proton run of the LHC was very successful and resulted in important physics discoveries. It was followed by a two-year shutdown where a large number of improvements were carried out. In 2015, the LHC was restarted and this second run aims at further exploring the physics of the standard model and beyond at an increased beam energy. This article gives a review of the performance achieved so far and the limitations encountered, as well as the future challenges for the CERN accelerators to maximize the data delivered to the LHC experiments in Run 2. Furthermore, the status of the 2016 LHC run and commissioning is discussed.

/pdf/lhc-run-2-results-and-challenges-cyxcby49so.pdf

LHC Run 2: Results and challenges

/pdf/report-of-the-task-force-on-the-incident-of-19th-september-x3vytgor94.pdf

Report of the Task Force on the Incident of 19th September 2008 at the LHC

At each interconnection between LHC main magnets a low-resistance solder joint must be made between superconducting cables in order to provide a continuous current path through the superconductor and also to the surrounding copper stabilizer in case the cable quenches [1]. About 10,000 such joints exist in the LHC. An extensive campaign has been undertaken to characterize and map the resistances of these joints. All of the superconducting cable splices were measured at 1.9 K and no splices were found with a resistance larger than 3 nΩ. Non-invasive measurements of the stabilizer joints were made at 300 K in 5 of the 8 sectors, and at 80 K in 3 sectors. More precise local measurements were made on suspect interconnects that were opened up, and poor joints were repaired. However, it is likely that additional imperfect stabilizer joints still exist in the LHC. A statistical analysis is used to place bounds on the remaining worst-case resistances. This sets limits on the maximum operating energy of the LHC, prior to a more extensive intervention [2].

/pdf/high-current-bus-splice-resistances-and-implications-for-the-2oq3ar38o4.pdf

High-current bus splice resistances and implications for the operating energy of the lhc

Following the QPS review in February 2009, a potential source of problems with the main circuit bus bar splices was identified: discontinuity in the copper stabilizer, coupled with lack of contact of the superconducting cable to the copper, in the vicinity of a splice. A campaign was launched to measure all such cases in the LHC. Non-invasive measurements were performed at room temperature or at about 80K in all sectors. A number of splices, following an indication obtained from these measurements, were opened and repaired. The resistance of these splices was also measured before and after the repair. We here present the results of this measuring campaign, together with the analysis that estimates the highest splice resistance left in the machine, which is a limiting factor to the maximum safe energy at which the LHC can operate.

/pdf/measurements-of-the-resistance-of-main-circuit-busbar-3qzfcfty2w.pdf

Measurements of the Resistance of Main Circuit Busbar Segments at the LHC at Warm

Prior to the re-start of the Large Hadron Collider LHC in 2009 the protection system for superconducting magnets and bus-bars QPS will be substantially upgraded. The foreseen modifications will enhance the capability of the system in detecting problems related to the electrical interconnections between superconducting magnets as well as the detection of so-called aperture symmetric quenches in the LHC main magnets.

/pdf/upgrade-of-the-protection-system-for-superconducting-27qu0oetwc.pdf

Upgrade of the protection system for superconducting circuits in the LHC

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Report of the Task Force on the Incident of 19th September 2008 at the LHC

High-current bus splice resistances and implications for the operating energy of the lhc

Measurements of the Resistance of Main Circuit Busbar Segments at the LHC at Warm

Upgrade of the protection system for superconducting circuits in the LHC