본 연구는 현존하는 여덟 개의 〈뿔피리를 부는 제빵사〉 작품이 산발적으로 우연히 등장한 것이 아닌 서로 유기적인 영향관계를 주고 받으며 생산된 하나의 도상으로 살펴보았다. “뿔피리를 부는 제빵사” 그림에 대한 현재까지의 연구는 대부분 그림에 나타나 있는 다양한 빵들을 성만찬을 의미하는 종교적 상징으로 해석하고 있다. 이에 반해 본 연구는 “뿔피리를 부는 제빵사” 도상이 유독 17세기 중후반 네덜란드에서 생산된 사실에 주목하고, 그 이유를 동시대 네덜란드인들의 일상에 직접적인 영향을 주었던 빵의 생산 및 공급 그리고 유통과정에서 찾고자 한다. 여기에는 빵이 당대 네덜란드인들의 식생활 뿐 아니라 그들의 경제생활 더나아가 국가경제 전체에 어떤 중요한 역할을 했는지에 대한 연구가 선행되어야 한다. 주로 풍속화의 전통으로 해석되었던 “뿔피리를 부는 제빵사” 그림은 본 연구에서 풍속화와 초상화 두 장르가 혼합한 도상으로 다루어졌으며, 이제까지의 연구에서 미흡했던 초상화로서의 가능성이 적극적으로 제기되었다. 제빵사의 초상화 또는 화가의 자화상으로 생산된 〈뿔피리를 부는 제빵사〉의 시대적 배경에는 제빵사의 경제적 여유와 사회적 지위상승 그리고 제빵사를 영혼의 양식을 공급하는 고귀한 직업으로 승화시킨 칼비니즘의 영향이 있다. 제빵사들이 부를 축적할 수 있었던 배경에는 국가가 나서서 빵의 생산과 공급을 철저하게 관리해준 덕분이었다. 17세기 네덜란드의 제빵사들은 길드에 속해야만 빵을 팔 수 있었고 각 제빵사들의 빵 만드는 법은 외부인들에게 절대로 공개되지 않았다. 동시에 당시 네덜란드인들은 세금을 내지 않고는 빵을 먹기가 힘들었다. 이런 이유로 개인의 집에 오븐을 설치하는 것은 금지되었고, 빵은 꼭 관헌들에게 세금을 내는 합법적인 제빵사에게서만 살 수 있었다. 이렇게 17세기 네덜란드는 직업으로서 빵 굽는 사람을 보호하는 동시에 단속하기 위해 매우 엄격한 규정을 제정하였다. 17세기 네덜란드인들에게 빵은 그들의 식생활 뿐 아니라 그들의 다양한 직업과도 관련이 있었으며 빵의 생산과 유통과정에 개입한 국가의 권위와 통제를 상징하기도 한다. 빵의 생산과 유통에 붙는 세금은 국가의 경제를 지탱하고 발전시키는데 중요한 재원이었으며, 동시에 국민들을 엄격하게 관리함으로써 국가의 질서를 세우기 위한 효과적인 방편이었다. 빵가격은 변동이 심한 곡물가격과 빵의 크기에 따라서 엄격하게 결정되었다. 네덜란드정부는 평상시에 빵의 공식적인 무게와 가격을 고정시켰는데, 이는 다른 음식에서는 찾아볼 수 없는 유일한 관리방식이었다. 따라서 동시대 네덜란드인들에게 빵은 국가의 적극적인 개입과 관리체계를 통해서만 그들의 입에 넣을 수 있는 음식이었다. 이러한 맥락에서 볼 때, 본 연구에서 다룬 〈뿔피리를 부는 제빵사〉 그림에서 풍성하게 차려진 다양한 빵은 경제적인 풍요와 정치적인 안정을 의미한다. 여러 가지 다양한 음식 중에서도 빵이 이러한 의미를 가장 효과적으로 전달한다는 점에서 〈뿔피리를 부는 제빵사〉 그림에서 빵은 당시 네덜란드의 물질적 풍요뿐만 아니라 국가의 번영과 안녕을 의미한다고 볼 수 있다.

17세기 네덜란드 미술에 나타난 빵의 사회사

EPJ Web of Conferences

Self-consistent methods for the structure of heavy and superheavy nuclei are reviewed. The construction and application of energy-density functionals are discussed. The relationship between the self-consistent methods and microscopic-macroscopic approaches is considered on the mean-field level. The extraction of single-particle potentials from the energy-density functional is described. The isotopic dependence of nucleon distributions and its influence on the nucleus–nucleus interaction is analyzed. As a new additional condition we introduce that the energy-density functional must describe the heights of the Coulomb barriers in nucleus–nucleus interaction potentials, thus imposing constraints on the properties of the functional at low matter densities. The self-consistent methods are applied to describe the quasiparticle structure, cluster radioactivity, and fission of the heaviest nuclei. These methods are used to predict the probabilities of $$\beta $$
 -delayed multi-neutron emission and half-lives of $$\beta $$
 -decays and electron captures in heavy and superheavy nuclei. The predicted properties of superheavy nuclei are used to estimate the production cross-sections of superheavy nuclei in complete fusion reactions.

Self-consistent methods for structure and production of heavy and superheavy nuclei

We use the random phase approximation to systematically describe the total muon capture rates on all nuclei where they have been measured. We reproduce the experimental values on these nuclei to better than 15% accuracy using the free nucleon weak form factors and residual interactions with a mild A dependency. The isospin dependence and the effects associated with shell closures are fairly well reproduced as well. However, the calculated rates for the same residual interactions would be significantly lower than the experimental data if the in-medium quenching of the axial-vector coupling constant were employed to other than the true Gamow-Teller amplitudes. Our calculation thus suggests that no quenching is needed in the description of semileptonic weak processes involving higher multipole transitions and momentum transfer ~mµ, with obvious importance to analogous weak processes.

https://arxiv.org/pdf/nucl-th/0606002.pdf

Muon capture on nuclei: Random phase approximation evaluation versus data for 6 ⩽ Z ⩽ 94 nuclei

Recent results obtained on the basis of the self-consistent theory of finite Fermi systems by employing the energy density functional proposed by Fayans and his coauthors are surveyed. These results are compared with the predictions of Skyrme–Hartree–Fock theory involving several popular versions of the Skyrme energy density functional. Spherical nuclei are predominantly considered. The charge radii of even and odd nuclei and features of low-lying 2+ excitations in semimagic nuclei are discussed briefly. The single-particle energies ofmagic nuclei are examined inmore detail with allowance for corrections to mean-field theory that are induced by particle coupling to low-lying collective surface excitations (phonons). The importance of taking into account, in this problem, nonpole (tadpole) diagrams, which are usually disregarded, is emphasized. The spectroscopic factors of magic and semimagic nuclei are also considered. In this problem, only the surface term stemming from the energy dependence induced in the mass operator by the exchange of surface phonons is usually taken into account. The volume contribution associated with the energy dependence initially present in the mass operator within the self-consistent theory of finite Fermi systems because of the exchange of high-lying particle–hole excitations is also included in the spectroscopic factor. The results of the first studies that employed the Fayans energy density functional for deformed nuclei are also presented.

Self-consistent theory of finite Fermi systems and Skyrme–Hartree–Fock method

Phonon coupling (PC) corrections to magnetic moments of odd neighbors of magic and semi-magic nuclei are analyzed within the self-consistent Theory of Finite Fermi Systems (TFFS) based on the Energy Density Functional by Fayans et al. The perturbation theory in g_L^2 is used where g_L is the phonon-particle coupling vertex. A model is developed with separating non-regular PC contributions, the rest is supposed to be regular and included into the standard TFFS parameters. An ansatz is proposed to take into account the so-called tadpole term which ensures the total angular momentum conservation with g_L^2 accuracy. An approximate method is suggested to take into account higher order terms in g_L^2. Calculations are carried out for four odd-proton chains, the odd Tl, Bi, In and Sb ones. Different PC corrections strongly cancel each other. In the result, the total PC correction to the magnetic moment in magic nuclei is, as a rule, negligible. In non-magic nuclei considered it is noticeable and, with only one exception, negative. On average it is of the order of -(0.1 - 0.5) \mu_N and improves the agreement of the theory with the data. Simultaneously we calculated the gyromagnetic ratio g_L^{ph} of all low-lying phonons in 208Pb. For the 3^-_1 state it is rather close to the Bohr-Mottelson model prediction whereas for other L-phonons, two 5^- and six positive parity states, the difference from the Bohr-Mottelson values is significant.

Phonon coupling effects in magnetic moments of magic and semi-magic nuclei

We review Migdal's Theory of Finite Fermi Systems and its application to the structure of nuclei. The theory is an extension of Landau's Theory of Interacting Fermi Systems. In the first part the basic formulas are derived within the many body Green functions approach. The theory is applied to isovector electric giant resonances in medium and heavy mass nuclei. The parameterizations of the enormalized effective ph-interaction and the effective operators are discussed. It is shown that the number of free parameters are restricted due to conservation laws. We also present an extension of Migdal's theory, where the low-lying phonons are considered in a consistent manner. The extended theory is again applied to the same isovector electric giant resonances and to the analysis of $(\alpha,\alpha^\prime)$ reaction data. We point out that the extended theory is the appropriate frame for self consistent nuclear structure calculations starting from effective Lagrangians and Hamiltonians.

/pdf/landau-migdal-theory-of-interacting-fermi-systems-a-581246czx0.pdf

Landau Migdal Theory of Interacting Fermi Systems: A Framework for Effective Theories in Nuclear Structure Physics

The Green's function method in the \emph{Quasiparticle Time Blocking Approximation} is applied to nuclear excitations in $^{132}$Sn and $^{208}$Pb. The calculations are performed self-consistently using a Skyrme interaction. The method combines the conventional RPA with an exact single-particle continuum treatment and considers in a consistent way the particle-phonon coupling. We reproduce not only the experimental values of low- and high-lying collective states but we also obtain fair agreement with the data of non-collective low-lying states that are strongly influenced by the particle-phonon coupling.

/pdf/self-consistent-calculations-within-the-green-s-function-2vup1orewt.pdf

Self-consistent calculations within the Green's function method including particle-phonon coupling and the single-particle continuum

We discuss major differences between electric and magnetic excitations in nuclei appearing in self-consistent calculation based on Skyrme energy-density functionals. Tools of analysis are Landau-Migdal parameters for bulk properties and RPA for resonance modes of $^{208}$Pb as representative of finite nuclei. We show that the relation between the effective mass and the effective particle-hole interaction, well known in the Landau-Migdal theory, explains the success of self-consistent calculations of electric transitions in such approaches. This effect, however, does not automatically exist in the magnetic case. This calls for further developments of the Skyrme functional in the spin channel.

Skyrme RPA for nuclear resonances: trouble with magnetic modes

We analyze recent data on a long series of high-spin states in $^{208}$Pb with a self-consistent phonon-coupling model for nuclear excitations based on the Skyrme functionals. The model is the renormalized time-blocking approximation (RenTBA) which takes the coherent one-particle-one-hole (1p1h) states of the random-phase approximation (RPA) as starting point and develops from that more complex configurations beyond RPA. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation of high spin states in $^{208}$Pb using self-consistent nuclear models. The interesting point here is that complex configurations are compulsory to describe the upper end of the long spin series at all. The data thus provide an ideal testing ground for phonon-coupling models as they give direct access to complex configurations. We find that standard Skyrme functionals which perform well in ground state properties and giant resonance excitations deliver at once an agreeable description of these high spin states.

Self-consistent description of high-spin states in doubly magic $^{208}$Pb

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