Current fabrication of nanomaterials is facing the following two challenges: high selectivity toward specific chemical compositions or morphologies and their scalable production. This usually requires new extreme fabrication conditions beyond the conventional approaches. Thermal plasma jets are flows of partially ionized gases where gas and electron temperatures reach their equilibrium state around 10 000 K, and thus provide high fluxes of energy and chemically active species including electrons and ions with their strong spatial gradients. Such extreme environments can trigger reactions that are not thermodynamically favorable or require high activation barriers, leading to the production of materials with exotic chemical compositions or structures. Since their first operation in 1960, thermal plasma jets were soon recognized as a unique and effective medium for material transformation such as melting, vaporization, and pyrolysis and recently have also found their important applications in nanomaterial fabrication. In this Perspective, we briefly review the latest progress in the thermal plasma jet-assisted fabrication of nanomaterials from nanoparticles to low-dimensional nanostructures. A special focus is made on the advantages of the thermal plasma jet technology in nanostructure fabrication, discussing plasma properties responsible for the nanomaterial growth with high throughput, high purity, anisotropy, desired compositions, or narrow size distributions. This Perspective closes with an outlook of challenges and opportunities for further advancement in this emerging field.

/pdf/nanofabrication-by-thermal-plasma-jets-from-nanoparticles-to-4fu09gwbds.pdf

Nanofabrication by thermal plasma jets: From nanoparticles to low-dimensional nanomaterials

Lithium metal oxide nanoparticles were synthesized by induction thermal plasma. Four different systems—Li–Mn, Li–Cr, Li–Co, and Li–Ni—were compared to understand formation mechanism of Li–Me oxide nanoparticles in thermal plasma process. Analyses of X-ray diffractometry and electron microscopy showed that Li–Me oxide nanoparticles were successfully synthesized in Li–Mn, Li–Cr, and Li–Co systems. Spinel structured LiMn2O4 with truncated octahedral shape was formed. Layer structured LiCrO2 or LiCoO2 nanoparticles with polyhedral shapes were also synthesized in Li–Cr or Li–Co systems. By contrast, Li–Ni oxide nanoparticles were not synthesized in the Li–Ni system. Nucleation temperatures of each metal in the considered system were evaluated. The relationship between the nucleation temperature and melting and boiling points suggests that the melting points of metal oxides have a strong influence on the formation of lithium metal oxide nanoparticles. A lower melting temperature leads to a longer reaction time, resulting in a higher fraction of the lithium metal oxide nanoparticles in the prepared nanoparticles.

Synthesis of Lithium Metal Oxide Nanoparticles by Induction Thermal Plasmas

Preparation of Carbon-Coated Silicon Nanoparticles with Different Hydrocarbon Gases in Induction Thermal Plasma

Interplanetary dust particles contain grains of glass with embedded metals and sulfides (GEMS; i.e., amorphous silicate grains with diameters of a few hundred nanometers containing Fe nanoinclusions and Fe sulfide particles), which are considered to be among the building blocks of the solar system. To explore that GEMS grains formed during the condensation process, condensation experiments were carried out in Si–Mg–Fe–Al–Ca–Ni–O and Mg–Si–Fe–Ca–Al–Na–O systems using an induction thermal plasma furnace. In all experimental runs, spherical grains (mostly composed of amorphous silicate) with diameter <100 nm formed. The analysis of the amorphous silicates, which were classified as Mg rich or Si rich, indicated that the condensates formed via melting. Fe led to the formation of fine magnetite grains in most of the oxidative experiments, to 10 nm metal grains (i.e., kamacite and taenite) under intermediate redox conditions, and to 30–100 nm Fe silicide grains (i.e., gupeiite, xifengite, and fersilicite) in most of the reductive experiments. Under intermediate redox conditions, some amorphous silicate particles showed multiple Fe inclusions with textures very similar to those of GEMS grains except for FeS, indicating that GEMS could form via melt condensation of high-temperature gases. Considering the nucleation and growth of solids from high-temperature gas during cooling, we infer that GEMS grains form either in the local environment of a protosolar disk (and be related to chondrule formations) or around evolved stars related to Type II-P supernovae and asymptotic giant branch–type stars.

Condensation of Glass with Multimetal Nanoparticles: Implications for the Formation Process of GEMS Grains

Li–Mn composite oxide nanoparticles are synthesized using an induction thermal plasma, and the formation mechanism is investigated on the basis of the homogenous nucleation rate and thermodynamic considerations. Under a high O2 partial pressure, MnO crystals nucleate and Li oxide condenses on MnO nuclei at a relatively high rate, forming LiMn2O4 in a single phase. On the other hand, under a low partial pressure of O2, LiMnO2 is obtained owing to the low condensation rate of Li oxide. This study presents the successful selective synthesis of LiMn2O4 nanoparticles by controlling the partial pressure of O2.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.7567/JJAP.55.07LE04/pdf

Induction thermal plasma synthesis of lithium oxide composite nanoparticles with a spinel structure

The purpose of this paper was to synthesize metal embedded amorphous silicate nanoparticles by induction thermal plasmas. Powder of Fe, Ni, Sn, and Zn were used as precursor as well as SiO2 and MgO. In the case of Fe, Ni, and Sn, metal embedded nanoparticles were successfully synthesized. While most of Zn nanoparticles were attached on the surface of the amorphous silicate nanoparticles. Internal rate of each metal in the synthesized nanoparticles and nucleation temperature were evaluated to understand the formation mechanism of the metal embedded amorphous silicate nanoparticles. Results indicated that the relationship between the nucleation temperature of silicon and the melting temperature of each metal has important role on the metal embedded nanoparticles formation.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/518/1/012025/pdf

Formation mechanism of metal embedded amorphous silicate nanoparticles by induction thermal plasmas

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Formation mechanism of metal embedded amorphous silicate nanoparticles by induction thermal plasmas