Uropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli are characterized by the expression of distinctive bacterial properties, products, or structures referred to as virulence factors because they help the organism overcome host defenses and colonize or invade the urinary tract. Virulence factors of recognized importance in the pathogenesis of urinary tract infection (UTI) include adhesins (P fimbriae, certain other mannose-resistant adhesins, and type 1 fimbriae), the aerobactin system, hemolysin, K capsule, and resistance to serum killing. This review summarizes the virtual explosion of information regarding the epidemiology, biochemistry, mechanisms of action, and genetic basis of these urovirulence factors that has occurred in the past decade and identifies areas in need of further study. Virulence factor expression is more common among certain genetically related groups of E. coli which constitute virulent clones within the larger E. coli population. In general, the more virulence factors a strain expresses, the more severe an infection it is able to cause. Certain virulence factors specifically favor the development of pyelonephritis, others favor cystitis, and others favor asymptomatic bacteriuria. The currently defined virulence factors clearly contribute to the virulence of wild-type strains but are usually insufficient in themselves to transform an avirulent organism into a pathogen, demonstrating that other as-yet-undefined virulence properties await discovery. Virulence factor testing is a useful epidemiological and research tool but as yet has no defined clinical role. Immunological and biochemical anti-virulence factor interventions are effective in animal models of UTI and hold promise for the prevention of UTI in humans. Images

Virulence factors in Escherichia coli urinary tract infection.

We determined the DNA sequence of an 8,211-base-pair region encompassing the chromosomal hemolysin, molecularly cloned from an O4 serotype strain of Escherichia coli. All four hemolysin cistrons (transcriptional order, C, A, B, and D) were encoded on the same DNA strand, and their predicted molecular masses were, respectively, 19.7, 109.8, 79.9, and 54.6 kilodaltons. The identification of pSF4000-encoded polypeptides in E. coli minicells corroborated the assignment of the predicted polypeptides for hlyC, hlyA, and hlyD. However, based on the minicell results, two polypeptides appeared to be encoded on the hlyB region, one similar in size to the predicted molecular mass of 79.9 kilodaltons, and the other a smaller 46-kilodalton polypeptide. The four hemolysin gene displayed similar codon usage, which is atypical for E. coli. This reflects the low guanine-plus-cytosine content (40.2%) of the hemolysin DNA sequence and suggests the non-E. coli origin of the hemolysin determinant. In vitro-derived deletions of the hemolysin recombinant plasmid pSF4000 indicated that a region between 433 and 301 base pairs upstream of the putative start of hlyC is necessary for hemolysin synthesis. Based on the DNA sequence, a stem-loop transcription terminator-like structure (a 16-base-pair stem followed by seven uridylates) in the mRNA was predicted distal to the C-terminal end of hlyA. A model for the general transcriptional organization of the E. coli hemolysin determinant is presented. Images

Nucleotide sequence of an Escherichia coli chromosomal hemolysin.

Repeats-in-toxin (RTX) exoproteins of Gram-negative bacteria form a steadily growing family of proteins with diverse biological functions. Their common feature is the unique mode of export across the bacterial envelope via the type I secretion system and the characteristic, typically nonapeptide, glycine- and aspartate-rich repeats binding Ca2+ ions. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge on the organization of rtx loci and on the biological and biochemical activities of therein encoded proteins. Applying several types of bioinformatic screens on the steadily growing set of sequenced bacterial genomes, over 1000 RTX family members were detected, with the biological functions of most of them remaining to be characterized. Activities of the so far characterized RTX family members are then discussed and classified according to functional categories, ranging from the historically first characterized pore-forming RTX leukotoxins, through the large multifunctional enzymatic toxins, bacteriocins, nodulation proteins, surface layer proteins, up to secreted hydrolytic enzymes exhibiting metalloprotease or lipase activities of industrial interest.

RTX proteins: a highly diverse family secreted by a common mechanism.

Type I secretion in gram-negative bacteria.

https://mmbr.asm.org/content/mmbr/48/4/326.full.pdf

Escherichia coli alpha-hemolysin: characteristics and probable role in pathogenicity.

We cloned the DNA containing the Escherichia coli hemolysin determinant on a small, high-copy plasmid. We generated plasmids containing fragments of this DNA and used them either alone or in two-plasmid complementation systems to define the limits of the structural genes. This system also allowed us to partially characterize the function of each of the gene products in the production and transport of hemolysin. Taken with previously published data, the present experiments indicate the following. (i) At least three cistrons, hlyC, hlyA, and hlyB (these were previously designated cisC, etc. [Noegel et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 175:343-350, 1979]), contain the specific genetic information for the hemolytic phenotype, (ii) hlyA encodes a 107,000-kilodalton protein, which seems to be an inactive precursor of hemolysin. (iii) Normal amounts of hemolysin activity inactive precursor of hemolysin. (iii) Normal amounts of hemolysin activity require only the products of hlyA and hlyC. This activity was found in the periplasm; very little hemolysin activity was found in the cytoplasm, suggesting that the hlyC product is required for transport or activation of the hlyA product or both. (iv) Active hemolysin remains in the periplasm in the absence of hlyB function, hence the hlyB product seems to be necessary for the transport of hemolysin to the exterior of the cell. We further show that overproduction of the hlyA product is lethal, probably causing lysis of the cell.

Cloning and functional characterization of the plasmid-encoded hemolysin determinant of Escherichia coli.

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Cloning and functional characterization of the plasmid-encoded hemolysin determinant of Escherichia coli.