A smart city is where existing facilities and services are enhanced by digital technology to benefit people and companies. The most critical infrastructures in this city are interconnected. Increased data exchange across municipal domains aims to manage the essential assets, leading to more automation in city governance and optimization of the dynamic offered services. However, no clear guideline or standard exists for modeling these data flows. As a result, operators, municipalities, policymakers, manufacturers, solution providers, and vendors are forced to accept systems with limited scalability and varying needs. Nonetheless, it is critical to raise awareness about smart-city cybersecurity and implement suitable measures to safeguard citizens’ privacy and security because cyber threats seem to be well-organized, diverse, and sophisticated. This study aims to present an overview of cyber threats, attacks, and countermeasures on the primary domains of smart cities (smart government, smart mobility, smart environment, smart living, smart healthcare, smart economy, and smart people). It aims to present information extracted from the state of the art so policymakers can perceive the critical situation and simultaneously be a valuable resource for the scientific community. It also seeks to offer a structural reference model that may guide the architectural design and implementation of infrastructure upgrades linked to smart city networks. 

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An Overview of Cyber Threats, Attacks and Countermeasures on the Primary Domains of Smart Cities

The rapid advancements in technology have given rise to groundbreaking solutions and practical applications in the field of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). These advancements have had a profound impact on the structures of numerous industrial organizations. The IIoT, a seamless integration of the physical and digital realms with minimal human intervention, has ushered in radical changes in the economy and modern business practices. At the heart of the IIoT lies its ability to gather and analyze vast volumes of data, which is then harnessed by artificial intelligence systems to perform intelligent tasks such as optimizing networked units’ performance, identifying and correcting errors, and implementing proactive maintenance measures. However, implementing IIoT systems is fraught with difficulties, notably in terms of security and privacy. IIoT implementations are susceptible to sophisticated security attacks at various levels of networking and communication architecture. The complex and often heterogeneous nature of these systems makes it difficult to ensure availability, confidentiality, and integrity, raising concerns about mistrust in network operations, privacy breaches, and potential loss of critical, personal, and sensitive information of the network's end-users. To address these issues, this study aims to investigate the privacy requirements of an IIoT ecosystem as outlined by industry standards. It provides a comprehensive overview of the IIoT, its advantages, disadvantages, challenges, and the imperative need for industrial privacy. The research methodology encompasses a thorough literature review to gather existing knowledge and insights on the subject. Additionally, it explores how the IIoT is transforming the manufacturing industry and enhancing industrial processes, incorporating case studies and real-world examples to illustrate its practical applications and impact. Also, the research endeavors to offer actionable recommendations on implementing privacy-enhancing measures and establishing a secure IIoT ecosystem. 

An Overview of Privacy Dimensions on the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)

IoT devices are typically authenticated directly by gateways present in the network. However, in large and complex IoT systems like the smart city or smart industry which consist of thousands of connected devices, it may not be always feasible to be directly connected to the gateway while it may be possible to be connected to another device. Therefore, already authenticated devices should facilitate the new device to get authenticated by the gateway. To address this issue, the existing protocols use multiple authentication protocols based on different cryptography techniques, which are difficult to implement and manage in resource constrained IoT devices. In this paper, we propose a Transitive device authentication protocol based on the Chebyshev polynomial. The transitive authentication protocol utilizes the session key established in the mutual authentication between the intermediate device and gateway. Both the mutual authentication and transitive authentication protocols are relying on the same preregistration and authentication mechanism. To ensure the security of the proposed authentication protocol, detailed security analysis is carried out, and the secure session key establishment is verified using the BAN logic. Moreover, the proposed protocol is tested against crucial attacks in the Scyther tool. These formal analyses and Scyther attack simulation show that the proposed protocol is capable of withstanding critical attacks. Finally, to verify the efficiency, the protocol implementation is experimentally compared with similar approaches studied in the literature. The results show that the proposed protocol offers better performance, providing significantly lower response time, handshake duration, memory utilization, and energy consumption. 

A lightweight mutual and transitive authentication mechanism for IoT network

Connected governance is the concept of technology- based governance where electronic services are delivered to citizen using Information and Communication Technology (ICT). As conventional governance delivers services to citizen through manual mode, it encounters various performance issues during its operation. For instance, the occurrence of human errors during record maintenance, loss or damage of official records, delayed delivery of services due to limitations of physical communication, engagement of huge manpower and infrastructure for operations and subsequent financial load over the state, etc., may be mentioned as few. To overcome these performance issues, electronic communication medium may be used for prompt delivery of messages between government and citizen within a connected environment. However, the connected governance has its own issues mainly due to application of public communication medium like Internet, which is highly susceptible to infringement attempts of adversaries. Researchers should focus to eradicate security lapses of electronic message communication. For instance, the verification of communicating parties, securing source and destination of SERVICE REQUEST and SERVICE RESPONSE, protection from unauthorized access of sensitive information during its transit, encrypted transmission of sensitive information through Internet, etc., may be mentioned as few. To achieve these objectives, the digital identity of user should be established uniquely before initiating any electronic transaction using authentic instrument. In India, though citizen is claimed to be uniquely identified using Aadhaar Card, Voter Card, Ration Card, PAN Card, etc., recent initiative of government to interlink these identity instruments implicitly acknowledges the necessity of unified platform for delivery of multifaceted services to citizen. Furthermore, this approach of interlinking multiple identity instruments is providing wide window open to adversaries to validate their fake documents with the help of other documents, thereby leading to complete collapse of system. To resolve this issue as per local parameters, author have proposed a cloud-based multifaceted service delivery model, whose object-oriented modeling (OOM) is performed in this chapter.

Object-Oriented Modeling of Multifaceted Service Delivery System Using Connected Governance

A Lightweight Mutual and Transitive Authentication Mechanism for Iot Network

With the advancements in the Information and communication Technologies, people's living are becoming more sophisticated and easier. Information and communication Technologies is the core of modern computing. Among its several applications, smart cities playa major role in the upliftment of the society's well-being. E-governance in the smart cities bridges the gap between the public and the government and hence plays a major role in the modern era. There arises some security concerned issues with the rapid growth of e-governance applications. To ensure its security, authentication must be more secure and must allow only the legitimate users to access the services. In this paper, a robust authentication scheme is proposed to overcome the drawbacks of the existing schemes. It utilises only lightweight XOR, one way and perceptual hash operations for authorisation. Also multiple factors such as User's Identity, Password and Biometrics are used for better scalability and security. The proposed scheme is validated with well known Automated Validation of Internet Security Protocols and Applications tool. The security analysis concludes that the scheme is resistant to various attacks.

Secure Three-Factor Remote user Authentication for E-Governance of Smart Cities

With the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT), wearable technology is gaining a significant importance in the recent era. Major applications of wearable technology are fitness trackers, healthcare, smart shoes, sleeping cycles, wearable computers, smart watches etc. These intelligent devices function in conjunction with mobile terminals to provide ease of access and data analysis of sensitive information, generated from the wearable devices. The data from these devices are private data of users and authentication plays a major role in securing these data against the illegal access. This paper presents a Fuzzy extractor adopted authentication scheme for legitimate access of information from the wearable devices. This scheme promotes session key generation and mutual authentication. Further, the security can be enhanced with the use of Fuzzy Extractor for session key agreement. The mechanism proposed is validated with the use of most used AVISPA (Automated Validation of Internet Security Protocols and Applications) tool and the result obtained assures that it is strong against various security attacks. Also, the functionality feature analysis confesses the efficiency of the proposed scheme. Thus the remote user authentication method proposed can be concluded as more suitable for resourceconstrained wearable devices. Keywords— Internet of Things, AVISPA, Wearable devices, Fuzzy Extractor, Chebyshev chaotic map

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Secure Fuzzy Extractor based remote user validation scheme for Wearable devices

Authentication of legitimate user plays a prominent role in security of the Internet of Things (IoT) applications like smart home, smart cities, wearable devices etc. The services offered by IoT devices must be attainable from anyplace and anytime, only by the legitimate users. The existing authentication schemes for IoT applications are not secure, vulnerable to many attacks and also any illegal user may access the data of smart devices. This paper presents an authentication scheme which uses only simple algebraic operations like hash and XOR, and this makes the proposed authentication scheme more suitable for the lightweight environment of IoT. It uses multiple factors like user identity, password, and biometrics for authenticating the legal users. Also, the proposed scheme establishes mutual authentication and key establishment between the users and smart devices involved in the communication. The protocol is modeled using the Security Protocol Description Language and the verification is done using one of the formal verification tools–Scyther. The result from the Scyther tool confirms the security of the protocol and clarifies that it is robust against various known attacks and are more affordable for practical applications.

Multi-factor Based User Authentication Scheme for Lightweight IoT Devices

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Secure Three-Factor Remote user Authentication for E-Governance of Smart Cities

Secure Fuzzy Extractor based remote user validation scheme for Wearable devices

Multi-factor Based User Authentication Scheme for Lightweight IoT Devices