Inspired by the gradient structures of biological materials, researchers have explored compositional and structural gradients for about 40 years as an approach to enhance the properties of engineering materials, including metals and metallic alloys. The synthesis of various gradient nanostructured materials, such as gradient nanograined, nanolaminated nd nanotwinned metals and alloys, has provided new opportunities to understand gradient-related mechanical behaviour. These emerging gradient materials often exhibit unprecedented mechanical properties, such as strength–ductility synergy, extraordinary strain hardening, enhanced fracture and fatigue resistance, and remarkable resistance to wear and corrosion, which are not found in materials with homogeneous or random microstructures. This Review critically assesses the state of the art in the field of gradient nanostructured metallic materials, covering topics ranging from the fabrication and characterization of mechanical properties to underlying deformation mechanisms. We discuss various deformation behaviours induced by structural gradients, including stress and strain gradients, the accumulation and interaction of new dislocation structures, and unique interfacial behaviour, as well as providing insight into future directions for the development of gradient structured materials. Gradient nanostructured metals and alloys are an emerging class of materials that exhibit a combination of excellent mechanical properties that are not possessed by their homogeneous counterparts. This Review assesses the fabrication, characterization and deformation behaviour of these materials, as well as the challenges and future directions of the field.

Mechanical properties and deformation mechanisms of gradient nanostructured metals and alloys

Magnesium, the lightest structural metal, is approximately four times lighter than steel—the most widely used metal in industrial applications. Currently available Mg alloys, however, are impractically expensive for use in automotive structural components, as severe ductility problems require forming operations at elevated temperatures and an exclusion from critical safety components. With a strong impetus in research having sprung up during the last two decades, addition of rare-earth elements in small quantities emerged as a potential solution for simultaneously delivering the ductility and weight requirements for automotive applications. These improvements are arguably achieved by virtue of texture weakening and enhancement of non-basal slip. However, ways by which rare-earth elements modify texture remain very elusive, and no consensus on the driving mechanisms has been reached in the literature as of yet. We take a look back at different paradigms held for the action of rare-earth additions, and examine key facts that may reconcile controversies. We attempt to identify critical gaps and suggest venues to overcome them. These gaps, once filled, may promote Mg alloys to become a stronghold for lightweighting, which will exceptionally benefit our environment and wellbeing.

A review on the effect of rare-earth elements on texture evolution during processing of magnesium alloys

Severe plastic deformation (SPD) is effective in producing bulk ultrafine-grained and nanostructured materials with large densities of lattice defects. This field, also known as NanoSPD, experienced a significant progress within the past two decades. Beside classic SPD methods such as high-pressure torsion, equal-channel angular pressing, accumulative roll-bonding, twist extrusion, and multi-directional forging, various continuous techniques were introduced to produce upscaled samples. Moreover, numerous alloys, glasses, semiconductors, ceramics, polymers, and their composites were processed. The SPD methods were used to synthesize new materials or to stabilize metastable phases with advanced mechanical and functional properties. High strength combined with high ductility, low/room-temperature superplasticity, creep resistance, hydrogen storage, photocatalytic hydrogen production, photocatalytic CO2 conversion, superconductivity, thermoelectric performance, radiation resistance, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility are some highlighted properties of SPD-processed materials. This article reviews recent advances in the NanoSPD field and provides a brief history regarding its progress from the ancient times to modernity. Abbreviations: ARB: Accumulative Roll-Bonding; BCC: Body-Centered Cubic; DAC: Diamond Anvil Cell; EBSD: Electron Backscatter Diffraction; ECAP: Equal-Channel Angular Pressing (Extrusion); FCC: Face-Centered Cubic; FEM: Finite Element Method; FSP: Friction Stir Processing; HCP: Hexagonal Close-Packed; HPT: High-Pressure Torsion; HPTT: High-Pressure Tube Twisting; MDF: Multi-Directional (-Axial) Forging; NanoSPD: Nanomaterials by Severe Plastic Deformation; SDAC: Shear (Rotational) Diamond Anvil Cell; SEM: Scanning Electron Microscopy; SMAT: Surface Mechanical Attrition Treatment; SPD: Severe Plastic Deformation; TE: Twist Extrusion; TEM: Transmission Electron Microscopy; UFG: Ultrafine Grained GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT IMPACT STATEMENT This article comprehensively reviews recent advances on development of ultrafine-grained and nanostructured materials by severe plastic deformation and provides a brief history regarding the progress of this field.

Nanomaterials by severe plastic deformation: review of historical developments and recent advances

A synchrotron X-ray radiography study of dendrite fragmentation induced by a pulsed electromagnetic field in an Al–15Cu alloy

Effects of nanofeatures induced by severe shot peening (SSP) on mechanical, corrosion and cytocompatibility properties of magnesium alloy AZ31.

Grain growth and texture evolution during annealing in an indirect-extruded Mg–1Gd alloy

In the present study we investigated the influence of shot peening on the high cycle fatigue (HCF) performance of the Mg–10Gd–3Y magnesium alloys in four different conditions referred to as-cast, cast-T6, as-extruded and extruded-T5, respectively. The results show that shot peening can cause different degree of enhancement of fatigue performance for Mg–10Gd–3Y alloys depending on the Almen peening intensity applied; and that the Almen intensity could always be found that conferred the optimum improvement. The effect of shot peening was quantified, and for the as-extruded and extruded-T5 alloys it was found to be superior to that for the as-cast and cast-T6 alloys. The peened extruded-T5 Mg–10Gd–3Y alloy showed the highest fatigue strength at 10 7 cycles of 240 MPa. The results of the analyses established a connection between the grain size, ductility and precipitates within the studied alloys. Microstructure affected the magnitude of the surface roughness induced by shot peening and also the maximum compressive residual stress and its relaxation during fatigue, and then determine the beneficial effect of shot peening.

Improvement of fatigue properties by shot peening for Mg–10Gd–3Y alloys under different conditions

Tensile and high cycle fatigue properties of hot extruded ZK60 magnesium alloy have been investigated, in comparison to that of hot-extruded plus T5 heat-treated ZK60 magnesium alloy which was named as ZK60-T5. High cycle fatigue tests were carried out at a stress rate (R) of −1 and a frequency of 100 Hz using hour-glass-shaped round specimens with a gage diameter of 5.8 mm. The results show that tensile strength greatly improved and elongation is also slightly enhanced after T5 heat treatment, and the fatigue strength (at 107 cycles) of ZK60 magnesium alloy increases from 140 to 150 MPa after T5 heat treatment, i.e., the improvement of 7% in fatigue strength has been achieved. Results of microstructure observation suggest that improvement of mechanical properties of ZK60 magnesium alloy is due to precipitation strengthening phase and texture strengthening by T5 heat treatment. In addition, fatigue crack initiations of ZK60 and ZK60-T5 magnesium alloys were observed to occur from the specimen surface and crack propagation was characterized by striation-like features coupled with secondary cracks.

High cycle fatigue behavior of as-extruded ZK60 magnesium alloy

This paper reports the deformation behavior and texture evolution during uniaxial compression in an extruded Mg–1Gd alloy with a typical 〈2−1−11〉 fiber texture using the electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) technique. Extension twinning and basal slip are the dominant deformation modes in the early stage of compressive deformation, which are responsible for the remarkable change of texture components. With increasing strain, the texture is changed from the 〈2−1−11〉 into the 〈0001〉 fiber texture component mainly due to the gradual rotation of c-axes towards the compressive direction caused by basal slip.

Deformation behavior and texture evolution in an extruded Mg–1Gd alloy during uniaxial compression

A columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET) was induced by controlling the cooling rate in the directional solidification of an Al-15 wt.% Cu alloy. The morphological evolution of the mush–liquid interface in CET was tracked and recorded by X-ray imaging. The dendrite growth and detachment, solute distribution at the growth front and excessive solute enrichment in the liquid pockets were clearly observed. Based on the observations, it was found that there is an obvious increase in melt density in the liquid pocket due to the excessive solute enrichment. The density difference between the melt and the solid is an important reason for dendrite detachment and fragment movement, which is considered as the key to the inducement of CET. Finally, the CET process and the growth of equiaxed dendrites at the mush–liquid interface were described from the viewpoint of dendrite detachment.

In situ observation of columnar-to-equiaxed transition in directional solidification using synchrotron X-radiation imaging technique

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