Wheat and barley are critical food and feed crops around the world. Wheat is grown on more land area worldwide than any other crop. In the United States, production of wheat and barley contributes to domestic food and feed use, and contributes to the export market and balance of trade. Fifteen years ago, Plant Disease published a feature article titled “Scab of wheat and barley: A re-emerging disease of devastating impact”. That article described the series of severe Fusarium head blight (FHB) epidemics that occurred in the United States and Canada, primarily from 1991 through 1996, with emphasis on the unparalleled economic and sociological impacts caused by the 1993 FHB epidemic in spring grains in the Northern Great Plains region. Earlier publications had dealt with the scope and damage caused by this disease in the United States, Canada, Europe, and China. Reviews published after 1997 further described this disease and its impact on North American grain production in the 1990s. This article r...

https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/pdf/10.1094/PDIS-03-12-0291-FE

A Unified Effort to Fight an Enemy of Wheat and Barley: Fusarium Head Blight.

Biogenic aerosols play important roles in atmospheric chemistry physics, the biosphere, climate, and public health. Here, we show that fungi which actively discharge their spores with liquids into the air, in particular actively wet spore discharging Ascomycota (AAM) and actively wet spore discharging Basidiomycota (ABM), are a major source of primary biogenic aerosol particles and components. We present the first estimates for the global average emission rates of fungal spores. 

Measurement results and budget calculations based on investigations in Amazonia (Balbina, Brazil, July 2001) indicate that the spores of AAM and ABM may account for a large proportion of coarse particulate matter in tropical rainforest regions during the wet season (0.7–2.3 μg m^−3). For the particle diameter range of 1–10 μm, the estimated proportions are ~25% during day-time, ~45% at night, and ~35% on average. For the sugar alcohol mannitol, the budget calculations indicate that it is suitable for use as a molecular tracer for actively wet discharged basidiospores (ABS). ABM emissions seem to account for most of the atmospheric abundance of mannitol (10–68 ng m^−3), and can explain the observed diurnal cycle (higher abundance at night). ABM emissions of hexose carbohydrates might also account for a significant proportion of glucose and fructose in air particulate matter (7–49 ng m^−3), but the literature-derived ratios are not consistent with the observed diurnal cycle (lower abundance at night). AAM emissions appear to account for a large proportion of potassium in air particulate matter over tropical rainforest regions during the wet season (17–43 ng m^−3), and they can also explain the observed diurnal cycle (higher abundance at night). The results of our investigations and budget calculations for tropical rainforest aerosols are consistent with measurements performed at other locations. 

Based on the average abundance of mannitol reported for extratropical continental boundary layer air (~25 ng m^−3), we have also calculated a value of ~17 Tg yr^−1 as a first estimate for the global average emission rate of ABS over land surfaces, which is consistent with the typically observed concentrations of ABS (~10³–10^4 m^−3; ~0.1–1 μg m^−3). The global average atmospheric abundance and emission rate of total fungal spores, including wet and dry discharged species, are estimated to be higher by a factor of about three, i.e. 1 μg m^−3 and ~50 Tg yr^−1. Comparisons with estimated rates of emission and formation of other major types of organic aerosol (~47 Tg yr^−1 of anthropogenic primary organic aerosol; 12–70 Tg yr^−1 of secondary organic aerosol) indicate that emissions from fungi should be taken into account as a significant global source of organic aerosol. The effects of fungal spores and related chemical components might be particularly important in tropical regions, where both physicochemical processes in the atmosphere and biological activity at the Earth's surface are particularly intense, and where the abundance of fungal spores and related chemical compounds are typically higher than in extratropical regions.

/pdf/contribution-of-fungi-to-primary-biogenic-aerosols-in-the-51xddfe8e1.pdf

Contribution of fungi to primary biogenic aerosols in the atmosphere: wet and dry discharged spores, carbohydrates, and inorganic ions

https://hal-agroparistech.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01362219/document

Fusarium head blight: epidemiological origin of the effects of cultural practices on head blight attacks and the production of mycotoxins by Fusarium in wheat grains

The recent increase in prevalence and severity of fusarium head blight (FHB), in cereals in Canada and elsewhere, has caused hardship and economic loss to producers and the grain industry. This review emphasizes Canadian contributions, but incorporates studies from North America to put that research into perspective. Since the reviews of Sutton in 1982 and Miller in 1994, significant advances in our understanding of the epidemiology of the disease have occurred that are fundamental to the development of appropriate management strategies. Also, we now better understand the genetics of resistance in wheat and there is a consensus that resistant cultivars will provide the most stable and durable solution to the problem of FHB. Our knowledge of the genetic basis of resistance in wheat, and the development of molecular markers to facilitate early generation selection for resistance to FHB, are essential tools to this end. Resistant cultivars will ensure stable yields and high-quality grain free of mycotoxins.

Review: Recent developments in research on fusarium head blight of wheat in Canada

Management of Fusarium head blight of wheat and barley

The spread of Fusarium head blight of wheat from a small area inoculum source was examined in wheat plots (100, 625, or 2,500 m 2 ) inoculated in the center with Gibberella zeae-colonized corn kernels or macroconidia sprayed on heads at anthesis. With the first inoculation method, disease foci were produced from ascospores released from perithecia formed on inoculated kernels. With the second inoculation method, disease foci were produced by macroconidia directly applied to the heads. Some plots were misted during anthesis. Plots were divided into grids, and disease incidence on spikelets and seeds was assessed at the grid intersections. Isopath contour maps were constructed using an interpolation procedure based on a weighted least squares method. Disease gradients were constructed from the isopath contours in the direction parallel to average nightly wind vectors using an exponential model. This study was conducted over a 3-year period at two sites: one in Quebec and one in Ontario. Both inoculation methods resulted in a discrete, primary focus of head blight in each plot, with one or two smaller secondary foci in some plots. The highest incidence of disease on spikelets or seed was commonly displaced somewhat from the inoculum source, usually downwind. The gradient slopes of seed and spikelet infection ranged from -0.10 to -0.43 m -1 in plots with ascospore inoculum and from -0.48 to -0.79 m -1 in plots inoculated with macroconidia. Seed infection declined to 10% of the maximum within 5 to 22 m from the focal center in ascospore-inoculated plots, and within 5 m in a macroconidia-inoculated plot. Gradients were usually steeper upwind compared with downwind of the inoculum source. In misted plots, incidence of disease was higher and more diffuse than in nonirrigated plots. Based on gradients and dispersal patterns, disease foci in plots inoculated with G. zeae-colonized corn kernels probably arose from airborne ascospores rather than from splashborne macroconidia and were the result of infection events that occurred over a short period of time. Comparison of conidial- and ascosporederived disease gradients indicated a lack of secondary infection, confirming that Fusarium head blight is primarily a monocyclic disease.

Head Blight Gradients Caused by Gibberella zeae from Area Sources of Inoculum in Wheat Field Plots

Spores were sampled during 2 years over wheat plots at Ottawa, Ontario. Plots were treated with corn colonized with Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch (anamorph Fusarium graminearum Schwabe). In 1994...

Daily and seasonal dynamics of airborne spores of Fusarium graminearum and other Fusarium species sampled over wheat plots

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Head Blight Gradients Caused by Gibberella zeae from Area Sources of Inoculum in Wheat Field Plots

Daily and seasonal dynamics of airborne spores of Fusarium graminearum and other Fusarium species sampled over wheat plots