We provide an overview of both traditional and innovative control tools for management of three Xylosandrus ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), invasive species with a history of damage in forests, nurseries, orchards and urban areas. Xylosandrus compactus, X. crassiusculus and X. germanus are native to Asia, and currently established in several countries around the globe. Adult females bore galleries into the plant xylem inoculating mutualistic ambrosia fungi that serve as food source for the developing progeny. Tunneling activity results in chewed wood extrusion from entry holes, sap outflow, foliage wilting followed by canopy dieback, and branch and trunk necrosis. Maintaining plant health by reducing physiological stress is the first recommendation for long-term control. Baited traps, ethanol-treated bolts, trap logs and trap trees of selected species can be used to monitor Xylosandrus species. Conventional pest control methods are mostly ineffective against Xylosandrus beetles because of the pests’ broad host range and rapid spread. Due to challenges with conventional control, more innovative control approaches are being tested, such as the optimization of the push–pull strategy based on specific attractant and repellent combinations, or the use of insecticide-treated netting. Biological control based on the release of entomopathogenic and mycoparasitic fungi, as well as the use of antagonistic bacteria, has yielded promising results. However, these technologies still require validation in real field conditions. Overall, we suggest that management efforts should primarily focus on reducing plant stress and potentially be combined with a multi-faceted approach for controlling Xylosandrus damage.

/pdf/recent-advances-toward-the-sustainable-management-of-9ao5j6cex4.pdf

Recent advances toward the sustainable management of invasive Xylosandrus ambrosia beetles

Ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae and Platypodinae) bore into tree xylem to complete their life cycle, feeding on symbiotic fungi. Ambrosia beetles are a threat to avocado where they have been found to vector a symbiotic fungus, Raffaelea lauricola, the causal agent of the laurel wilt disease. We assessed the repellency of methyl salicylate and verbenone to two putative laurel wilt vectors in avocado, Xyleborus volvulus (Fabricius) and Xyleborus bispinatus (Eichhoff), under laboratory conditions. Then, we tested the same two chemicals released from SPLAT flowable matrix with and without low-dose ethanol dispensers for manipulation of ambrosia beetle populations occurring in commercial avocado. The potential active space of repellents was assessed by quantifying beetle catch on traps placed 'close' (~5-10 cm) and 'far' (~1-1.5 m) away from repellent dispensers. Ambrosia beetles collected on traps associated with all in-field treatments were identified to species to assess beetle diversity and community variation. Xyleborus volvulus was not repelled by methyl salicylate (MeSA) or verbenone in laboratory assays, while X. bispinatus was repelled by MeSA but not verbenone. Ambrosia beetle trap catches were reduced in the field more when plots were treated with verbenone dispensers (SPLAT) co-deployed with low-dose ethanol dispensers than when treated with verbenone alone. Beetle diversity was highest on traps deployed with low-dose ethanol lures. The repellent treatments and ethanol lures significantly altered the species composition of beetles captured in experiment plots. Our results indicate that verbenone co-deployed with ethanol lures holds potential for manipulating ambrosia beetle vectors via push-pull management in avocado. This tactic could discourage immigration and/or population establishment of ambrosia beetles in commercial avocado and function as an additional tool for management programs of laurel wilt.

/pdf/evaluation-of-semiochemical-based-push-pull-strategy-for-1g45loejfn.pdf

Evaluation of semiochemical based push-pull strategy for population suppression of ambrosia beetle vectors of laurel wilt disease in avocado.

Forests are one of the most important global vegetation types, serving functions from supporting healthy watershed, to wildlife habitat, and economic industries through their harvesting and tourism value. Understanding and mitigating threats to these resources is therefore of great societal importance. Forest pests are among the most pertinent and obvious threats to forest health, with their impacts amplified by contemporary issues such as climate change and global trade (Allen et al., 2010; Wingfield et al., 2016). In particular, recent increases in the frequency and severity of insect outbreaks have led to the loss of significant forest areas from across the globe (Roy et al., 2014) and highlighted the need for rigorous research to understand the underlying basis of their impacts.

Introduced wood-boring beetles have been particularly damaging, which are often released from competitors and predators in their new environments, and target healthy trees without evolved resistance. In their native range, they typically colonize only dead or dying trees and are, therefore, not recognized as harmful. Recent examples of invasive pests include the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), which primarily attacks ash trees, the redbay ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus) infesting members of the laurel family (Lauraceae), and the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) and polyphagous shot hole borer (PSHB), which are capable of infesting a wide range of tree species (Baranchikov et al., 2008; Fraedrich et al., 2008; Haack et al., 2010; Eskalen et al., 2013; Paap et al., 2018). Since their accidental introductions from Asia, these aggressive pests have been implicated in the mortality of millions of trees in Europe and North America, and the potential for the further spread of these and other pest species poses a major threat to the health of global forests.

While forest insect pests have understandably attracted strong research attention, especially in countries where forestry is a major economic industry, far less understood are the pathogens they carry and how these contribute to forest damage, especially under climate change. For instance, the redbay ambrosia beetle, PSHB and longhorned beetles described above have each been found to carry assemblages of fungi, including pathogenic species (Fraedrich et al., 2008; Linnakoski et al., 2018; Paap et al., 2018). Here we focus on fungal pathogens vectored by wood-boring insect pests, and argue that they can amplify the negative effects of these pests and cause significant forest damage in their own right (Fraedrich et al., 2008; Ploetz et al., 2013). The purpose of this opinion article is to shed light on these implications, discuss the mechanisms underlying their interactions with host trees, and highlight the research required to resolve gaps in knowledge and progress understanding of this topic.

/pdf/pathogens-the-hidden-face-of-forest-invasions-by-wood-boring-1wizj5ozjw.pdf

Pathogens-The Hidden Face of Forest Invasions by Wood-Boring Insect Pests

USDA Floriculture and Nursery Research Initiative (USDA/FNRI); Horticultural Research Institute (HRI); USDA-ARS National Program 304-Crop Protection and Quarantine [3607-22000-012-00D]; USDA-ARS National Program 305-Crop Production [6062-21430-002-00D]; USDA National Institute of Food and AgricultureUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) [SC-1700473]

/pdf/integrating-repellent-and-attractant-semiochemicals-into-a-1i9loon9iz.pdf

Integrating repellent and attractant semiochemicals into a push–pull strategy for ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Ambrosia beetles in the cryptic species complex Euwallacea nr. fornicatus vector a fungal pathogen responsible for Fusarium dieback, a disease that impacts avocado (Persea americana), woody ornamentals, and numerous native trees in the USA (California, Florida), Israel, and other countries. Currently, these pests are detected with quercivorol lures (containing p-menth-2-en-1-ol isomers), but recent research identified an essential oil enriched in (-)-α-copaene as a new attractant. In this study, lure longevity and efficacy were assessed in three 12-week field tests conducted in Florida by deploying traps baited with quercivorol, α-copaene, and a combination of the two. A fourth test compared different formulations of quercivorol. Concurrent with field experiments, gas chromatographic analyses were conducted to quantify initial lure contents as well as volatile emissions from lures field-aged for 12 weeks. In all tests, the lure combination captured significantly more E. nr. fornicatus than the individual lures; and in two trials, synergistic attraction was observed. Field life of the combination lure was 12 weeks; longevity of single lures varied from 9 to 12 weeks. Twelve terpenoids were detected from the α-copaene-enriched oil, suggesting there may be additional attractants. Analysis of the quercivorol lure showed it contained 88% trans- and 9% cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol. Results indicate that the combination of quercivorol and α-copaene provides a long-lasting, effective lure for early detection of E. nr. fornicatus in Florida. Further research is needed to determine which isomer of p-menth-2-en-1-ol is attractive to Florida E. nr. fornicatus, and if other members of the species complex are attracted to (-)-α-copaene.

Quantitative analysis of contents and volatile emissions from α-copaene and quercivorol lures, and longevity for attraction of Euwallacea nr. fornicatus in Florida

The redbay ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus glabratus, is the vector of the laurel wilt disease fungal pathogen, Raffaelea lauricola. Since the vector's initial detection in the USA in the early 2000s, laurel wilt has killed millions of redbay, Persea borbonia, trees and other members of the plant family Lauraceae. To protect host trees from beetle attack and laurel wilt infection, we tested the efficacy of host- and non-host-derived and commercial compounds as X. glabratus repellents in field experiments. In our first trial, the major constituents of the non-host tree, longleaf pine, Pinus palustris, and SPLAT Verb (verbenone 10%) were paired with manuka oil attractants and beetle captures were counted. Verbenone and a 1 : 1 blend of myrcene and camphene were intermediate to both the manuka positive and blank negative controls. Subsequently, we tested different blends of methyl salicylate (MeSA), a host defence and signalling compound, and verbenone in SPLAT dispensers using freshly cut redbay bolts as an attractant. All treatments reduced X. glabratus captures and boring holes as compared to the redbay (-) repellent positive control; however, SPLAT Verb and SPLAT MeSA-Verb (5% each) achieved the highest repellency, with results comparable to that of the non-host (laurel oak). These trials establish that host-derived and commercially available repellent compounds can reduce X. glabratus attacks and therefore have potential as part of an integrated management strategy against laurel wilt and its vector.

Evaluation of repellents for the redbay ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus glabratus, vector of the laurel wilt pathogen

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Evaluation of repellents for the redbay ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus glabratus, vector of the laurel wilt pathogen