A variety of approaches have been used to understand the evolution of male parental care. General frameworks are provided by Trivers’ theory of sexual selection (1972), the theory of life history strategies (see Horn, 1978; Stearns, 1976) and game theory (Grafen and Sibly, 1978; Maynard Smith, 1977). The factors invoked to explain male parental investment have varied with the level of analysis; intrinsic biological factors such as internal versus external fertilization (Dawkins and Carlisle, 1976; Ridley, 1978) or the capacity to invest (Orians, 1969) have been used to illuminate differences between large taxonomic units such as the vertebrate classes; ecological factors such as harshness (Wilson, 1975), richness (Jenni, 1974), and unpredictability (Pitelka et al., 1974) have all been invoked to explain the presence of unusual levels of male investment in smaller taxonomic units.

/pdf/the-evolution-of-male-parental-investment-in-mammals-ud05xpszq9.pdf

The Evolution of Male Parental Investment in Mammals

The present work documents how the logic of a model's demonstration and the communicative cues that the model provides interact with age to influence how children engage in social learning. Children at ages 12, 18, and 24 months (n=204) watched a model open a series of boxes. Twelve-month-old subjects only copied the specific actions of the model when they were given a logical reason to do so--otherwise, they focused on reproducing the outcome of the demonstrated actions. Eighteen-month-old subjects focused on copying the outcome when the model was aloof. When the model acted socially, the subjects were as likely to focus on copying actions as outcomes, irrespective of the apparent logic of the model's behavior. Finally, 24-month-old subjects predominantly focused on copying the model's specific actions. However, they were less likely to produce the modeled outcome when the model acted non-socially.

/pdf/copying-actions-and-copying-outcomes-social-learning-through-5c1i93nsyg.pdf

Copying Actions and Copying Outcomes: Social Learning through the Second Year.

Tropical forests and the animals they support are being threatened byaccelerating rates of forest conversion and degradation In a continuallyfluctuating sociopolitical world, it is often impossible to protect areasfrom such conversion until the political environment is suitable to pur-sue conservation goals, by which time, the forests have often been con-verted to other uses This reality suggests a need for inquiry into whichprimate species can persist after different types of disturbances and howquickly primate communities can recover from disturbance Here we ex-amine the persistence of primate populations in disturbed habitats byproviding a case study of patterns of primate abundance in areas of KibaleNational Park (766 km

Habitat alteration and the conservation of African primates: case study of Kibale National Park, Uganda.

Cooperation often involves behaviours that reduce immediate payoffs for actors. Delayed benefits have often been argued to pose problems for the evolution of cooperation because learning such contingencies may be difficult as partners may cheat in return. Therefore, the ability to achieve stable cooperation has often been linked to a species' cognitive abilities, which is in turn linked to the evolution of increasingly complex central nervous systems. However, in their famous 1981 paper, Axelrod and Hamilton stated that in principle even bacteria could play a tit-for-tat strategy in an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma. While to our knowledge this has not been documented, interspecific mutualisms are present in bacteria, plants and fungi. Moreover, many species which have evolved large brains in complex social environments lack convincing evidence in favour of reciprocity. What conditions must be fulfilled so that organisms with little to no brainpower, including plants and single-celled organisms, can, on average, gain benefits from interactions with partner species? On the other hand, what conditions favour the evolution of large brains and flexible behaviour, which includes the use of misinformation and so on? These questions are critical, as they begin to address why cognitive complexity would emerge when ‘simple’ cooperation is clearly sufficient in some cases. This paper spans the literature from bacteria to humans in our search for the key variables that link cooperation and deception to cognition.

/pdf/the-interplay-of-cognition-and-cooperation-472uz53fxq.pdf

The interplay of cognition and cooperation

Cooperation invites cheating, and nowhere is this more apparent than when different species cooperate, known as mutualism. In almost all mutualisms studied, specialist parasites have been identified that purloin the benefits that one mutualist provides another. Explaining how parasites are kept from driving mutualisms extinct remains an unsolved problem because existing theories explaining the maintenance of cooperation do not apply to parasites of mutualisms. Nonetheless, these theories can be summarized in such a way as to suggest how mutualisms can persist in the face of parasites. (1) For cooperation to occur, the recipient of a benefit must reciprocate, and the recriprocated benefit must be captured by the initial giver or its offspring. (2) For cooperation to persist, the mutualism must be re-assembled each generation. Because most mutualisms are of the “by-product‘ type, broadly defined, the first condition is normally always fulfilled. Thus, the maintenance of mutualism usually requires enforcement of the second condition: reliable re-assembly. Hence, I argue that the persistence of mutualism is best understood by using theories of species coexistence, because each mutualist can be considered a resource for the other, and species coexistence theory explains how multiple taxa (e.g. parasites and mutualists) can stably partition a resource over multiple generations. This approach connects the study of mutualism to theories of population regulation and helps to identify key factors that have promoted the evolution, maintenance and breakdown of mutualism. I discuss how these ideas might apply to and be tested in ant-plant, fig-wasp and yucca-moth mutualisms.

Parasites of mutualisms

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Advances in the Study of Behaviour