Physiological resistance and behavioral responses of mosquito vectors to insecticides are critical aspects of the chemical-based disease control equation. The complex interaction between lethal, sub-lethal and excitation/repellent ('excito-repellent’) properties of chemicals is typically overlooked in vector management and control programs. The development of “physiological” resistance, metabolic and/or target site modifications, to insecticides has been well documented in many insect groups and disease vectors around the world. In Thailand, resistance in many mosquito populations has developed to all three classes of insecticidal active ingredients currently used for vector control with a majority being synthetic-derived pyrethroids. Evidence of low-grade insecticide resistance requires immediate countermeasures to mitigate further intensification and spread of the genetic mechanisms responsible for resistance. This can take the form of rotation of a different class of chemical, addition of a synergist, mixtures of chemicals or concurrent mosaic application of different classes of chemicals. From the gathered evidence, the distribution and degree of physiological resistance has been restricted in specific areas of Thailand in spite of long-term use of chemicals to control insect pests and disease vectors throughout the country. Most surprisingly, there have been no reported cases of pyrethroid resistance in anopheline populations in the country from 2000 to 2011. The precise reasons for this are unclear but we assume that behavioral avoidance to insecticides may play a significant role in reducing the selection pressure and thus occurrence and spread of insecticide resistance. The review herein provides information regarding the status of physiological resistance and behavioral avoidance of the primary mosquito vectors of human diseases to insecticides in Thailand from 2000 to 2011.

/pdf/review-of-insecticide-resistance-and-behavioral-avoidance-of-15vjm4trf9.pdf

Review of insecticide resistance and behavioral avoidance of vectors of human diseases in Thailand

Malaria is reemerging in endemic-disease countries of South America. We examined the rate of real growth in annual parasite indexes (API) by adjusting APIs for all years to the annual blood examination rate of 1965 for each country. The standardized APIs calculated for Brazil, Peru, Guyana, and for 18 other malariaendemic countries of the Americas presented a consistent pattern of low rates up through the late 1970s, followed by geometric growth in malaria incidence in subsequent years. True growth in malaria incidence corresponds temporally with changes in global strategies for malaria control. Underlying the concordance of these events is a causal link between decreased spraying of homes with DDT and increased malaria; two regression models defining this link showed statistically significant negative relationships between APIs and house-spray rates. Separate analyses of data from 1993 to 1995 showed that countries that have recently discontinued their spray programs are reporting large increases in malaria incidence. Ecuador, which has increased use of DDT since 1993, is the only country reporting a large reduction (61%) in malaria rates since 1993. DDT use for malaria control and application of the Global Malaria Control Strategy to the Americas should be subjects of urgent national and international debate. We discuss the recent actions to ban DDT, the health costs of such a ban, perspectives on DDT use in agriculture versus malaria control, and costs versus benefits of DDT and alternative insecticides.

/pdf/ddt-global-strategies-and-a-malaria-control-crisis-in-south-4lm9wp5u2l.pdf

DDT, global strategies, and a malaria control crisis in South America

Malaria is still a major burden causing the death of nearly 655,000 people each year, mostly in children under the age of five, and affecting those living in the poorest countries [1]. Currently, the major obstacles to malaria control and elimination are the absence of a protective vaccine, the spread of parasite resistance to anti-malarial drugs and the mosquito resistance to insec‐ ticides [2]. Controlling mosquito vectors is fundamental to reduce mosquito-borne diseases by targeting vectorial capacity and hence the transmission. Vector control through the use of chemicals for mosquito bed nets and indoor residual spraying is still the cornerstone of malaria prevention [1]. Unfortunately, the extensive use of insecticides since the 1950s has led to the development of strong resistance worldwide hence representing a major public health problem where insecticidal vector control is implemented. Here, we propose to review the current level, distribution and mechanisms of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors and address their impact on the efficacy of vector control interventions. Strategies to prevent and/or delay the spread of insecticide resistance in natural mosquito populations are also discussed.

/pdf/distribution-mechanisms-impact-and-management-of-insecticide-9ow3a8jz8s.pdf

Distribution, Mechanisms, Impact and Management of Insecticide Resistance in Malaria Vectors: A Pragmatic Review

Successful maintenance of a large colony of ‘wild’ anophelines, or numerous small-scale genetically unique strains, depends largely on the meticulous attention of skilled individuals. However, the methods we describe below have proven to be robust, greatly reducing the level of experience and judgement required for success. Although developed with Anopheles gambiae in mind, we, and others, have used essentially the same methods successfully with An. arabiensis, An. albimanus, An. stephensi, An. freeborni and An. quadrimaculatus.

Care and maintenance of anopheline mosquito colonies

House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae): Biology, Pest Status, Current Management Prospects, and Research Needs

DDT Residual Sprays Applied in Buildings to Control Anopheles quadrimaculatus

Chapter 6 – Anopheles quadrimaculatus Say

Based on the LC-,50’s in tests with contact sprays, house flies ( Musca domestica L.) collected in eight dairies and six poultry houses in Florida in 1957 were 3 to 133 times as resistant as normal flies to malathion, 11 of the strains were 1.3 to 72 times as resistant to Dipterex, five strains were 5 to 38 times as resistant to Diazinon, and seven were 3 to > 18 times as resistant to parathion. In tests with poisoned baits, 10 strains were 13 to > 105 times as resistant as normal flies to malathion, and four of these strains were 3 to 19 times as resistant to Dipterex; in 1954 and 1951 the resistance to Dipterex or malathion baits did not ex- ceed 8 times normal in flies from the barns where these four strains were collected.

Resistance of house flies in Florida to organophosphorus insecticides.

Laboratory Rearing of Certain Leaf-Eating Insects

Control of Mosquito Larvae in Rice Fields with Water-Soluble Phosphorus Insecticides

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