The effect of outliers on reaction time analyses is evaluated. The first section assesses the power of different methods of minimizing the effect of outliers on analysis of variance (ANOVA) and makes recommendations about the use of transformations and cutoffs. The second section examines the effect of outliers and cutoffs on different measures of location, spread, and shape and concludes using quantitative examples that robust measures are much less affected by outliers and cutoffs than measures based on moments. The third section examines fitting explicit distribution functions as a way of recovering means and standard deviations and concludes that unless fitting the distribution function is used as a model of distribution shape, the method is probably not worth routine use.

Methods for Dealing With Reaction Time Outliers

Fear Generalization in Humans: Systematic Review and Implications for Anxiety Disorder Research

The role of associative fear and avoidance learning in anxiety disorders: Gaps and directions for future research.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the neural correlates of excessive habit formation in obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD). The authors aimed to test for neurobiological convergence with the known pathophysiology of OCD and to infer, based on abnormalities in brain activation,whetherthesehabits arisefrom dysfunctioninthe goal-directed or habit system. Method: Thirty-seven OCD patients and 33 healthy comparison subjects learned to avoid shocks while undergoing a functional MRI scan. Following four blocks of training, the authors tested whether the avoidance response had become a habit by removing the threat of shock and measuring continued avoidance. Task-related differences in brain activity in three regions of interest (the caudate, the putamen, and the medial orbitofrontal cortex) were tested at a statistical threshold set at ,0.05 (family-wise-error corrected). Results: Excessive habit formation in OCD patients, which was associated with hyperactivation in the caudate, was observed. Activation in this region was also associated with subjective ratings of increased urge to perform habits. The OCD group, as a whole, showed hyperactivation in the medial orbitofrontal cortex during the acquisition of avoidance; however, this did not relate directly to habit formation. Conclusions: OCD patients exhibited excessive habits that were associatedwithhyperactivationin akey regionimplicated in the pathophysiology of OCD, the caudate nucleus. Previous studies indicate that this region is important for goal-directed behavior, suggesting that habit-forming biases in OCD may be a result of impairments in this system, rather than differences in the buildup of stimulus-response habits themselves.

https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040525

Functional Neuroimaging of Avoidance Habits in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Learning models of PTSD: Theoretical accounts and psychobiological evidence

Maladaptive behavioral consequences of conditioned fear-generalization: a pronounced, yet sparsely studied, feature of anxiety pathology.

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Maladaptive behavioral consequences of conditioned fear-generalization: a pronounced, yet sparsely studied, feature of anxiety pathology.