Reciprocity is a cornerstone of human relationships and apparently it also appears in human-robot interaction independently of the context. It is expected that reciprocity will play a principal role in HRI in the future. The negative side of reciprocal phenomena has not been entirely explored in human-robot interaction. For instance, a reciprocal act such as bribery between Humans and robots is a very novel area. In this paper, we try to evaluate the questions: Can a robot bribe a human? To what extent is a robot bribing a human affect his/her reciprocal response? We performed an experiment using the Rock, Paper, Scissors game (RPSG). The robot bribes the participant by losing intentionally in certain rounds to obtain his/her favour later, and through using direct and indirect speech in certain rounds. The participants could obtain between 20%– 25% more money when the robot bribed them than in the control condition. The robot also used either direct or indirect speech requesting a favour in a second task. Our results show that the bribing robot received significantly less reciprocation than in the control condition regardless of whether the request was couched in direct or indirect speech. However there is a significant interaction effect between the bribe and speech conditions. Moreover, just three of sixty participants reported the robot-bribe in an interview as a malfunction, though they did not mention any moral judgement about its behaviour. Further, just 10% of the participants reported the bribe in the online questionnaire. We consider that our experiment makes an early contribution to continue the exploration of morally ambiguous and controversial reciprocal situations in HRI. Robot designers should consider the reciprocal human response towards robots in different contexts including bribery scenarios. Additionally our study could be used in guidelines for robot behavioural design to model future HRI interactions in terms of moral decisions.

Can a Robot Bribe a Human?: The Measurement of the Negative Side of Reciprocity in Human Robot Interaction

The Journey is the Reward Chinese Proverb Reciprocity is a basic characteristic of Human-Human Interaction (HHI). However, there have not been many previous studies about reciprocity in Human-Robot Interaction (HRI). The imminent coming of social robots interacting with users in their daily spaces has encouraged researchers in HRI to describe these new relations between humans and robots in terms of reciprocity, persuasion, likeability, and trust. Consequently, these studies could have an impact on the design of new social robots. The development of this thesis considers three main research questions: 1. To what extent do humans reciprocate towards robots? 2. To what extent can robots use reciprocation for their own benefit? 3. What are the most beneficial and preferred reciprocal strategies between humans and robots? I used Game Theory to develop three experimental studies. Decision games such as Prisoner’s Dilemma, Ultimatum Game, Repeated Ultimatum Game and Rock, Paper, Scissors were used in the experiments. These games offer an engaging interaction between the participants and the robots, and they allow measuring of the variables related to reciprocity in HRI. The operationalisation of the studies was done under the definition of Reciprocity proposed by Fehr and Gaechter [53] which explains: in response to friendly actions, people are frequently much nicer and much more cooperative than predicted by the self-interest model; conversely, in response to hostile actions they are frequently much more nasty and even brutal. In addition to this, in the first and third study the "tit for tat" strategy was used with different modifications since it is a well-studied reciprocal strategy tested in previous experiments. Our main goal was to measure to what extent the Norm of Reciprocity,"to those who help us, we should return help, not harm" proposed by Gouldner [63] applies to Human-Robot Interaction in all the studies.

Reciprocity in human robot interaction.

Coordinated pair bonds are common in birds and also occur in many other taxa. How do animals solve the social dilemmas they face in coordinating with a partner? We developed an evolutionary model to explore this question, based on observations that a) neuroendocrine feedback provides emotional bookkeeping which is thought to play a key role in vertebrate social bonds and b) these bonds are developed and maintained via courtship interactions that include low-stakes social dilemmas. Using agent-based simulation, we found that emotional bookkeeping and courtship sustained cooperation in the iterated prisoner's dilemma in noisy environments, especially when combined. However, when deceitful defection was possible at low cost, courtship often increased cooperation, whereas emotional bookkeeping decreased it.

Emotions and courtship help bonded pairs cooperate, but emotional agents are vulnerable to deceit.

The ability to form and maintain long-term trusting relationships with others arguably has enabled humans to develop high levels of cooperation within social groups. Trust, as operationalized in the economic trust game, varies greatly between individuals and under different contexts, probably reflecting contributions from different component processes. From a mechanistic point of view, progress has been made to delineate neural substrates and neurochemical pathways involved in trusting behavior. However, many questions regarding the exact neural implementation of trust remain unanswered. To make progress on these outstanding questions, it would be helpful to be able to turn to an animal model of trust, in which the full range of neurobiological manipulations and readout could be employed. The fundamental question therefore is: can trust be adequately modeled in laboratory animals, such as rodents? Here we present a breakdown of trusting behavior into its component processes such as social recognition, and...

Can You Trust a Rat? Using Animal Models to Investigate the Neural Basis of Trust Like Behavior

AbstractWhether natural selection leads to attachment in monogamous pair bonds has seldom been addressed. Operationally defining attachment as a behavioral modifier that decreases divorce probability with pair duration, we develop a model for the evolution of attachment. If divorce (the ending of a pair bond when both individuals survive to the next breeding season) is more likely to occur out of poor-quality reproductive opportunities (i.e., poor territory or low-quality mate), individuals in experienced pairs are more likely to be found in high-quality opportunities. Consequently, when divorce decisions occur using imperfect information from reproductive success, pair duration provides individuals with information about the quality of their reproductive opportunity and attachment can evolve. We show that high survival rates, divorce propensities, and probabilities of nest failure favor the evolution of attachment. Attachment is also more likely to evolve when individuals can directly assess the quality of their reproductive opportunity (as opposed to relying on imperfect information from reproductive success), when the quality of the reproductive opportunity has adult survival ramifications, and when divorce coevolves with attachment. We show that our core conclusions are robust to a variety of assumptions using individual-based simulations. Our results clarify how attachment can be adaptive and suggest that studying pair bonds as dynamic entities is a promising avenue for future work.

The evolution of mate attachment

Reciprocal altruism implies delayed payoffs by definition. It might therefore seem logical to assume that limited memory, calculation, and planning capacities have constrained the evolution of reciprocity in non-human animals. Here I will argue that this is not the case. First, I will show that the emotional track of past interactions is enough to motivate and maintain reciprocity over longer timespans. Second, I will propose a developmental pathway of this system of emotional bookkeeping. In particular, the neuropeptide modulation underlying mother-infant and pair bonding may have been coopted for emotionally mediated reciprocity. Finally, I suggest that similar rewarding mechanisms may motivate indirect reciprocity and cooperation in larger social networks. Therefore, reciprocity can be ultimately conserved in primate lineages, without the need for individuals to keep a detailed account of benefits exchanged.

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An evolutionary Ockham's razor to reciprocity

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An evolutionary Ockham's razor to reciprocity