The impact of stellar feedback on the Kennicutt-Schmidt (KS) law, which relates the star formation rate (SFR) to the surface gas density, is a topic of ongoing debate. The interpretation of high-resolution observations of individual clouds is challenging due to the various processes at play simultaneously and inherent biases. Therefore, a numerical investigation is necessary to understand the role of stellar feedback and identify observable signatures. In this study we investigate the impact of stellar feedback on the KS law, aiming to identify distinct signatures that can be observed and analysed. By employing magnetohydrodynamic simulations of an isolated cloud, we specifically isolate the effects of high-mass star radiation feedback and protostellar jets. 
 High-resolution numerical simulations are a valuable tool for isolating the impact of stellar feedback on the star formation process, while also allowing us to assess how observational biases may affect the derived relation. We used high-resolution (<0.01 pc) magnetohydrodynamic numerical simulations of a 10$^4\ cloud and followed its evolution under different feedback prescriptions. The set of simulations contained four types of feedback: one with only protostellar jets, one with ionising radiation from massive stars (>8 odot $), one with the combination of the two, and one without any stellar feedback. 
 In order to compare these simulations with the existing observational results, we analysed their evolution by adopting the same techniques applied in the observational studies. Then, we simulated how the same analyses would change if the data were affected by typical observational biases: counting young stellar objects (YSO) to estimate the SFR, the limited resolution for the column density maps, and a sensitivity threshold for detecting faint embedded YSOs. Our analysis reveals that the presence of stellar feedback strongly influences the shape of the KS relation and the star formation efficiency per free-fall time (eff ).
 The impact of feedback on the relation is primarily governed by its influence on the cloud's structure. Additionally, the evolution of eff throughout the star formation event suggests that variations in this quantity can mask the impact of feedback in observational studies that do not account for the evolutionary stage of the clouds.
 Although the eff measured in our clouds is higher than what is usually observed in real clouds, upon applying prescriptions to mimic observational biases we recover a good agreement with the expected values. From that, we can infer that observations tend to underestimate the total SFR. Moreover, this likely indicates that the physics included in our simulations is sufficient to reproduce the basic mechanisms that contribute to setting eff . We demonstrate the interest of employing numerical simulations to address the impact of early feedback on star formation laws and to correctly interpret observational data. This study will be extended to other types of molecular clouds and ionising stars, sampling different feedback strengths, to fully characterise the impact of regions on star formation.

Stellar feedback in the star formation--gas density relation: Comparison between simulations and observations

The physical link between AGN activity and the suppression of star formation in their host galaxies is one of the major open questions of the AGN feedback scenario. The Spitzer space mission revealed a subset of powerful nearby radio galaxies with unusually bright line emission from warm ($T 100$ K) molecular hydrogen, while typical star-formation tracers such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) or a dust continuum have been exceptionally faint or undetected. Here, we present JWST NIRSpec and MIRI MRS IFU observations of one of the best studied galaxies of this class, 3C 326 N at z=0.09. We identified a total of 19 lines of the S, O, and Q series of ro-vibrational H$_2$ emission with NIRSpec at a 0.11 spatial resolution, probing a small quantity odot $) of gas at temperatures of $T 1000$ K. We also mapped the rotational mid-infrared lines of H$_2$ 0--0 S(3), S(5), and S(6) at a spatial resolution of 0.4 with MIRI/MRS, probing most of the $2 odot $ of warm H$_2$ in this galaxy. The CO band heads show a stellar component consistent with a 'slow-rotator' that is typical of a massive ($3 $\,M$_ galaxy, offering a reliable systemic redshift of $z=0.08979 0.0003$. The extended line emission shows a bipolar bubble expanding through the molecular disk at velocities of up to $, delineated by several bright clumps along the northern outer rim, potentially coming from gas fragmentation. Throughout the disk, H$_2$ is very broadly dispersed, with an FWHM of $ 100-1300$ km $ and complex, dual-component Gaussian line profiles. The extended FeII lambda 1.644 and Paalpha follow the same morphology, however NeIII lambda 15.56 is more symmetric about the nucleus. We show that most of the gas (with the exception of NeIII lambda 15.56) is predominantly heated by shocks driven by the radio jets into the gas, both for the ro-vibrational and rotational H$_2$ lines. In addition, the accompanying line broadening is sufficient to suppress star formation in the molecular gas. We also compared the morphology and kinematics of the rotational and ro-vibrational lines, finding the latter to be a good proxy to the global morphology and kinematic properties of the former in strongly turbulent environments. This demonstrates the potential of using the higher frequency ro-vibrational lines in studying turbulent molecular gas. Provided they are bright enough, they would allow us to examine turbulence in galaxies during the early phases of cosmic history, while most rotational lines are red-shifted out of the MIRI bandpass for $z ge1.5$ 

JWST/NIRSpec and MIRI observations of an expanding, jet-driven bubble of warm H2 in the radio galaxy 3C 326 N

Abstract A superbubble is a hot, dilute, and X-ray-emitting gas cavity produced by stellar winds and supernova explosions. It is an intriguing feature for the study of stellar feedback processes. We report a study of possible superbubbles in the Andromeda Galaxy (M31). We identify one out of 83 extended sources as a strong superbubble candidate, SB1, from the M31 X-ray source catalog. SB1 is located in the northern disc of M31 and exhibits soft, extended X-ray emission surrounded by an Hαshell. The XMM-Newtonspectral analysis reveals that SB1 has a temperature of ∼0.14 keV and an X-ray luminosity of $L_{\rm X}\sim 3.5\times 10^{37}\, \rm erg\, s^{-1}$ in the $0.3\hbox{-}10.0~\rm keV$ band. Two stellar clusters are found at the west rim of SB1. The estimated age of SB1 is similar to that of an overlapping young stellar cluster, and the color-magnitude diagram reveals the presence of young stellar objects with an age of less than 10 Myr. We propose that SB1 is a superbubble, likely having triggered star formation in this cluster by compressing the accumulated gas, thereby leading to the formation of gas-dense regions. 

X-rays from a newly discovered superbubble in M31

The mere fact that GR confirms that (non-gravitational) laws of physics may take on their SR forms locally at a point, where a Lorentz frame is set, means that it may handle high energy particles. As a matter of fact, energy considerations of high-energetic particles necessitate to modify Newton's theory of gravitation, due to its underlying action at-a-distance, and gives rise to Einstein's GR. After developing the GR theory, in its entirety, from scratch, we consider its consequences and witness how it stood the test of time and spell out the intricacies of black holes, white holes and wormholes. High energy considerations of GR, in a perturbative QFT setting, show that the degree of divergence of transition amplitudes increases, with higher orders, with no bound, implying the underlying theory fails to satisfy the criterion of renormalizability met by our other theories. In a non-perturbative background independent formulation of gravitation, considerations of a high-energy probe to explore the space structure at distances beyond the Planck length, seem to convey the quantization of area in units of the Planck length squared and describes space as composed of a network of loops woven together with nothing else in between. 

Wide Energy Spectrum of Gravitation: The General Theory and Beyond

Abstract Here we explore the impact of all major factors, such as the nonhomogeneous gas distribution, galactic rotation, and gravity, on the observational appearance of superbubbles in nearly face-on spiral galaxies. The results of our 3D numerical simulations are compared to the observed gas column density distribution in the largest southeast superbubble in the late-type spiral galaxy NGC 628. We make use of the star formation history inside the bubble derived from the resolved stellar population seen in Hubble Space Telescope images to obtain its energy and demonstrate that the results of numerical simulations are in good agreement with the observed gas surface density distribution. We also show that the observed gas column density distribution constrains the gaseous disk scale height and the midplane gas density if the energy input rate can be obtained from observations. This implies that observations of large holes in the interstellar gas distribution and their stellar populations have the potential power to solve the midplane gas density–gaseous disk scale height degeneracy problem in nearly face-on galaxies. The possible role of superbubbles in driving the secondary star formation in galaxies is also briefly discussed. 

What Holes in the Gas Distribution of Nearly Face-on Galaxies Can Tell Us about the Host Disk Parameters: The Case of the NGC 628 Southeast Superbubble

We here study the multi-band properties of a kiloparsec-size superbubble in the late-type spiral galaxy NGC628. The superbubble is the largest of many holes seen in the early release images using JWST/MIRI filters that trace the Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions. The superbubble is located in the interarm region ~3 kpc from the galactic center in the south-east direction. The shell surrounding the superbubble is detected in HI, CO, and Halpha with an expansion velocity of 12 km/s, and contains as much as 2x10^7 Msun of mass in gas that is mostly in molecular form. We find a clear excess of blue, bright stars inside the bubble as compared to the surrounding disk on the HST/ACS images. These excess blue, bright stars are part of a stellar population of 10^5 Msun mass that is formed over the last 50 Myr in different star formation episodes, as determined from an analysis of color-magnitude diagrams using a Bayesian technique. The mechanical power injected by the massive stars of these populations is sufficient to provide the energy necessary for the expansion of the shell gas. Slow and steady, rather than violent, injection of energy is probably the reason for the maintenance of the shell structure over the kiloparsec scale. The expanding shell is currently the site for triggered star formation as inferred from the JWST 21 micron (F2100W filter) and the Halpha images.

/pdf/the-stellar-population-responsible-for-a-kiloparsec-size-2ah6u9bm.pdf

The stellar population responsible for a kiloparsec size superbubble seen in the JWST"phantom"images of NGC628

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The stellar population responsible for a kiloparsec size superbubble seen in the JWST"phantom"images of NGC628