Under the government of China's environmental program known as Returning Farmland To Forests (RFTF), about 28 million hectares of farmland have been converted to tree plantation. This has led to a large accumulation of biomass carbon, but less is known about underground carbon-related processes. One permanent plot (25 years of observation) and four chronosequence plot series comprising 159 plots of larch (Larix gmelinii) plantations in northeastern China were studied. Both methods found significant soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation (96.4 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹) and bulk density decrease (5.7 mg cm⁻³ yr⁻¹) in the surface soil layer (0-20 cm), but no consistent changes in deeper layers, indicating that larch planting under the RFTF program can increase SOC storage and improve the physical properties of surface soil. Nitrogen depletion (4.1-4.3 g m⁻² yr⁻¹), soil acidification (0.007-0.022 pH units yr⁻¹) and carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio increase (0.16-0.46 per year) were observed in lessive soil, whereas no significant changes were found in typical dark-brown forest soil. This SOC accumulation rate (96.4 g m⁻² yr⁻¹) can take 39% of the total carbon sink capacity [net ecosystem exchange (NEE)] of larch forests in this region and the total soil carbon sequestration could be 87 Tg carbon within 20 years of plantation by approximating all larch plantations in northeastern China (4.5 Mha), showing the importance of soil carbon accumulation in the ecosystem carbon balance. By comparison with the rates of these processes in agricultural use, the RFTF program of reversing land use for agriculture will rehabilitate SOC, soil fertility and bulk density slowly (< 69% of the depletion rate in agricultural use), so that a much longer duration is needed to rehabilitate the underground function of soil via the RFTF program. Global forest plantations on abandoned farmland or function to protecting farmland are of steady growth and our findings may be important for understanding their underground carbon processes.

Changes in soil organic carbon, nitrogen, pH and bulk density with the development of larch (Larix gmelinii) plantations in China

Meta-analysis and other statistical methods were used to evaluate how changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) content in post-mining soils are related to different factors; the data were obtained from 17 studies covering 93 temperate post-mining sites in the Northern Hemisphere that had been revegetated by forest or grassland either by reclamation or natural succession. Because many studies have failed to report any measures of variance, only part of the data were used for meta-analysis. According to the meta-analysis, the rate of SOC accumulation was unrelated to vegetation type. In a separate analysis that included all available data and in which rates of SOC accumulation at each site were used as individual entries, the rate of SOC accumulation differed depending on the age of the site and vegetation type. Under deciduous forests, the rate reached a maximum after 5–10 years and then decreased. Under coniferous forests, the initial SOC values were lower than under deciduous forests, but slowly increased with age and reached a maximum after 30–40 years. No significant temporal trend was found in grasslands, probably because the data set included only relatively young grassland sites. Based on data from sites younger than 30 years, sites with grasslands and deciduous forests accumulated SOC faster than sites with coniferous forests. The rate of accumulation was negatively correlated with temperature under coniferous forests, but positively correlated with temperature in grasslands. This suggests that carbon sequestration is favored by cold climates in coniferous forests, but by warm climates in grasslands. Deciduous forests were intermediate. Compared to conifers, deciduous trees may support SOC sequestration deeper in the soil profile, which may enhance SOC stability. A large proportion of post-mining sites reach the pre-mining SOC stock within 20 years or less after reclamation.

Soil carbon accumulation after open-cast coal and oil shale mining in Northern Hemisphere: a quantitative review

Soil bulk density pedotransfer functions of the humus horizon in arable soils

Aboveground biomass and nutrient accumulation dynamics in young black alder, silver birch and Scots pine plantations on reclaimed oil shale mining areas in Estonia

To assess how the rates of humus formation and humification are affected by land use and age of ecosystems, this study investigated soil development in two post-mining chronosequences (spoil heaps formed from open-cast coal mining near Sokolov, Czech Republic). The following characteristics were measured: content, composition, and properties of humic acids; organic carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) contents; pH; and amorphous iron content. Two chronosequences were studied. One consisted of unreclaimed spontaneously revegetated spoils (3, 12, 20, and 40 years old). The other consisted of heaps that were reclaimed by planting alder in graded heaps (7, 15, 20, 30, and 40 years old). Humus and iron contents as well as pH were determined, and humic acids were extracted for detailed chemical analyses (C, H, N, 13C-NMR, and pyrolysis mass-spectrometry). C and N accumulated faster in the reclaimed sites than in the unreclaimed sites; organic matter accumulation results in the decrease of pH in all soils and in spontaneous sites also increase of amorphous iron content. Humic acids (HA) and fulvic acids (FA) increased with the site age in both chronosequences. The CHA/CFA was higher in the reclaimed soils than in the unreclaimed soils, and the CHA/CFA ratio increased with age in the unreclaimed soils. Humic acid aromaticity was higher in the reclaimed site than in the unreclaimed sites but increased with the age of unreclaimed sites. H and O content decreased with age of reclaimed soils. Humification led to an increase in HA caloricity in the reclaimed sites but not in unreclaimed sites because of the influence of residual wax-type substances in the unreclaimed sites. Degree of HA oxidation (ω) for the reclaimed plots was similar to that in typical zonal soils but was highly variable in unreclaimed soils. Relative to spontaneous revegetation in the unreclaimed sites, reclamation increased the rates of humus accumulation, humification, and humus acid transformations. The differences between reclaimed and unreclaimed sites, however, decreased with site age and were very small in 40-year-old sites. These differences correspond to the rapid colonization of the reclaimed sites and the slow colonization of the unreclaimed sites by soil biota.

Humus accumulation, humification, and humic acid composition in soils of two post-mining chronosequences after coal mining

Development of soil organic matter under pine on quarry detritus of open-cast oil-shale mining

A soil map at the scale 1:10,000 serves as a major important document for land owners and local governments, which allows them to use soil information in their daily activity. The intensity of exploitation of soil maps will increase when the very map and its legend are supplemented, within colored and indexed polygons, with information about soil texture and reaction by layers, but also about the thickness and characterization of the epipedon, quality indices for soil assessment, classes of stoniness, and prevalent fractions of stones, erosion risk, etc. Special maps of agronomical status, with a list of proper measures for improvement of soils and their associations, should form a regular component of large-scale mapping. As decrease in arable land and increase in the forest area are common trends in land use, these maps and general soil data should serve as the fundamental source of information for decision making concerning land use. Data indicating the suitability of any soil for any crop should be entered in a database. Application of GIS on any level of national economy, digitization of a large-scale soil database and making it accessible to land users would allow to expand the amount of available information for each soil map polygon.



Grosmasstabige Bodenkarten und erganzende Datenbank zur Landnutzungsplanung in Estland



Die Bodenkarte im Masstab 1:10000 dient den Landbesitzern und kommunalen Verwaltungen als eine wesentliche Unterlage fur ihre tagliche Arbeit sowohl auf dem Feld als auch im Hinblick auf die Bearbeitungsplanung. Die Anwendung von Informationen aus Bodenkarten erfordert die Einbeziehung von zusatzlichen Angaben, z.B. uber die Bodenart und -reaktion (nach Horizonten), uber die Machtigkeit und die Eigenschaften des Epipedons, uber die Bodenbewertung, uber Steingehalte und -grosenklassen, Erosionsrisiken etc. in Form von kolorierten und indexierten Polygonen. Spezialkarten zur Landnutzung mit einer Liste der empfohlenen Masnahmen zur Verbesserung des Bodenzustandes sollten in die grosmasstabigen Karten eingearbeitet werden. Da die Verringerung der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzflachen bei gleichzeitiger Zunahme der Waldflachen eine allgemeine Tendenz ist, sollten diese Karten und ausfuhrliche Bodendaten eine Grundlage fur Entscheidungsfindung im Bereich der Landnutzung darstellen. Angaben uber die fur jeden Boden geeigneten Pflanzen sollten in einer Datenbank gespeichert sein. Durch den Einsatz von GIS-Systemen in verschiedenen Wirtschaftsbereichen, durch die Digitalisierung der grosmasstabigen Bodendatenbank und ihre Zuganglichkeit fur Landnutzer kann die Datenmenge fur jedes Polygon der Bodenkarte deutlich verbessert werden.

Large-scale soil maps and a supplementary database for land use planning in Estonia

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Development of soil organic matter under pine on quarry detritus of open-cast oil-shale mining

Large-scale soil maps and a supplementary database for land use planning in Estonia