Attachment and Loss

A model is presented to account for the natural selection of what is termed reciprocally altruistic behavior. The model shows how selection can operate against the cheater (non-reciprocator) in the system. Three instances of altruistic behavior are discussed, the evolution of which the model can explain: (1) behavior involved in cleaning symbioses; (2) warning cries in birds; and (3) human reciprocal altruism. Regarding human reciprocal altruism, it is shown that the details of the psychological system that regulates this altruism can be explained by the model. Specifically, friendship, dislike, moralistic aggression, gratitude, sympathy, trust, suspicion, trustworthiness, aspects of guilt, and some forms of dishonesty and hypocrisy can be explained as important adaptations to regulate the altruistic system. Each individual human is seen as possessing altruistic and cheating tendencies, the expression of which is sensitive to developmental variables that were selected to set the tendencies at a balance ap...

/pdf/the-evolution-of-reciprocal-altruism-36v5rn897k.pdf

The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism

Attachment--and loss.

Security, Anxiety, And Distress * Prototypes of Human Sorrow * The Place of Separation and Loss in Psychopathology * Behavior with and without Mother: Humans * Behaviors with and Without Mother: Non-Human Primates An Ethological Approach To Human Fear * Basic Postulates in Theories of Anxiety and Fear * Forms of Behavior Indicative of Fear * Situations that Arouse Fear in Humans * Situations That Arouse Fear in Animals * Natural Clues to Danger and Safety * Natural Clues, Cultural Clues, and the Assessment of Danger * Rationalization, Misattribution, and Projection * Fear of Separation Individual Differences In Susceptibility To Fear: Anxious Attachment * Some Variables Responsible for Individual Differences * Susceptibility to Fear and the Availability of Attachment Figures * Anxious Attachment and Some Conditions That Promote It * Overdependency and the Theory of Spoiling * Anger, Anxiety, and Attachment * Anxious Attachment and the Phobias of Childhood * Anxious Attachment and Agoraphobia * Omission, Suppression, and Falsification of Family Context * Secure Attachment and the Growth of Self-Reliance * Pathways for the Growth of Personality

Separation: Anxiety and Anger

In men, high levels of endogenous testosterone (T) seem to encourage behavior intended to dominate - to enhance one's status over - other people. Sometimes dominant behavior is aggressive, its apparent intent being to inflict harm on another person, but often dominance is expressed nonaggressively. Sometimes dominant behavior takes the form of antisocial behavior, including rebellion against authority and law breaking. Measurement of T at a single point in time, presumably indicative of a man's basal T level, predicts many of these dominant or antisocial behaviors. T not only affects behavior but also responds to it. The act of competing for dominant status affects male T levels in two ways. First, T rises in the face of a challenge, as if it were an anticipatory response to impending competition. Second, after the competition, T rises in winners and declines in losers. Thus, there is a reciprocity between T and dominance behavior, each affecting the other. We contrast a reciprocal model, in which T level is variable, acting as both a cause and effect of behavior, with a basal model, in which T level is assumed to be a persistent trait that influences behavior. An unusual data set on Air Force veterans, in which data were collected four times over a decade, enables us to compare the basal and reciprocal models as explanations for the relationship between T and divorce. We discuss sociological implications of these models.

https://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/publications/pdf/kacelnik_norris_1998_bbs_testosterone.pdf

Testosterone and dominance in men.

Baboon Social Behavior

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