Total ionizing dose radiation effects on the electrical properties of metal-oxide-semiconductor devices and integrated circuits are complex in nature and have changed much during decades of device evolution. These effects are caused by radiation-induced charge buildup in oxide and interfacial regions. This paper presents an overview of these radiation-induced effects, their dependencies, and the many different approaches to their mitigation.

Radiation effects and hardening of MOS technology: devices and circuits

Electronic detectors used for imaging in electron microscopy are reviewed in this paper. Much of the detector technology is based on the developments in microelectronics, which have allowed the design of direct detectors with fine pixels, fast readout and which are sufficiently radiation hard for practical use. Detectors included in this review are hybrid pixel detectors, monolithic active pixel sensors based on CMOS technology and pnCCDs, which share one important feature: they are all direct imaging detectors, relying on directly converting energy in a semiconductor. Traditional methods of recording images in the electron microscope such as film and CCDs, are mentioned briefly along with a more detailed description of direct electronic detectors. Many applications benefit from the use of direct electron detectors and a few examples are mentioned in the text. In recent years one of the most dramatic advances in structural biology has been in the deployment of the new backthinned CMOS direct detectors to attain near-atomic resolution molecular structures with electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM). The development of direct detectors, along with a number of other parallel advances, has seen a very significant amount of new information being recorded in the images, which was not previously possible—and this forms the main emphasis of the review.

Direct imaging detectors for electron microscopy

In this overview, the low-frequency noise behaviour of devices fabricated in silicon-on-insulator technologies is described. The different potential noise sources are analysed and illustrated by experimental results, mainly obtained on MOSFETs. Some SOI-specific noise behaviour is highlighted, as for instance the kink-related excess low-frequency noise overshoot. It is shown furthermore that SOI MOSFETs suffer from so-called random telegraph signals, which can originate from the front- or the back-gate dielectric, or from defects located in the thin Si active layer. The impact of the substrate type (SIMOX, bonded, ZMR,…) is discussed. At the same time, it is shown that the used technology and device structure can have a pronounced effect on the LF noise performance. Finally, the response of SOI MOSFETs on ionizing radiation (γs, X-rays,…) is studied through the LF noise degradation, in view of radiation-hardened applications.

The low-frequency noise behaviour of silicon-on-insulator technologies

Progress in CMOS technology and in fine pitch bump bonding has made
possible the development of high granularity single photon counting detectors for
X-ray imaging. This thesis studies the design a ...

Design and Characterization of 64K Pixels Chips Working in Single Photon Processing Mode

The aim of this paper is to describe the development of hybrid pixel detectors from the origin to the application on medical imaging. We are going to recall the need for fast 2D detectors in the high energy physics experiments and to follow the different pixel electronic circuits created to satisfy this demand. The adaptation of these circuits for X-rays will be presented as well as their industrialization. Today, a number of applications are open for these cameras, particularly for biomedical imaging applications. Some developments for clinical CT will also be shown.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-0221/9/05/C05059/pdf

A history of hybrid pixel detectors, from high energy physics to medical imaging

In the framework of the CERN detector R&D effort in view of future high luminosity colliders, several pixel detector prototypes, both hybrid and monolithic, are being developed. A hybrid matrix of 16 × 64 pixels with a new readout cell is described here, and it will be first used for a test in a heavy-ion experiment. Preliminary results from the application of SOI processes on high resistivity silicon are also presented.

Development of silicon micropattern (pixel) detectors

A three-level polysilicon, buried channel charge coupled device (CCD) technology has been tested for Co/sup 60/ ionizing radiation damage up to a total dose of 90 krad(Si). For this purpose CCD image sensors have been irradiated together with their associated test structures. These include different types of MOSFETs, natural transistors, buried channel transistors, field transistors, and diodes. The devices have been fully characterized during irradiation and afterwards, as a function of time. The standard technology has been assessed, leading to the implementation of process and design modifications. The modified technology has been further tested according to the same procedure and significant improvement in the sensors' behavior under irradiation and during annealing has been observed. The radiation hardness of the CCDs has been correlated with the results of the test structures, allowing a better understanding of the degradation phenomena and of the countermeasures needed for a radiation-hardened technology. >

Ionizing radiation hardening of a CCD technology

A new approach to monolithic pixel detectors, based on silicon on insulator (SOI) wafers with high resistivity substrate, is being pursued by the CERN RD19 collaboration. The fabrication methods and the results of the electrical evaluation of the SOI-MOSFET devices and of the detector structures fabricated in the bulk are reported. The leakage current of the high-resistivity PIN-diodes is kept of the order of 5 to 10 nA/cm/sup 2/. The SOI preparation processes employed-SIMOX (separation by implantation of oxygen) and ZMR (zone melting recrystallization)-produce working electronic circuits, and appear to be compatible with the fabrication of detectors of suitable quality. >

Integration of CMOS-electronics and particle detector diodes in high-resistivity silicon-on-insulator wafers

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Papers

Development of silicon micropattern (pixel) detectors

Ionizing radiation hardening of a CCD technology

Integration of CMOS-electronics and particle detector diodes in high-resistivity silicon-on-insulator wafers