The breadth of expression in singing depends on fine control of physiology and acoustics. In this review, the basic concepts from speech acoustics, including the source-filter model, models of the glottal source and source-filter interactions, are described. The precise control, the extended pitch range, the timbre control and, in some cases, the uses of alternate phonation modes all merit further attention and explanation. Here we review features of the singing voice and the understanding that has been delivered by new measurement techniques. We describe the glottal mechanisms and the control of vocal tract resonances used in singing. We review linear and nonlinear components of the voice and the way in which they are measured and modelled and discuss the aero-acoustic models. We conclude with a list of open questions and active fields of research.

/pdf/analysing-and-understanding-the-singing-voice-recent-4tds44k27x.pdf

Analysing and Understanding the Singing Voice: Recent Progress and Open Questions

Geometry of human vocal folds and glottal channel for mathematical and biomechanical modeling of voice production.

Pathologic changes within the organic constitution of vocal folds or a functional impairment of the larynx may result in disturbed or even irregular vocal fold vibrations. The consequences are perturbations of the acoustic speech signal which are perceived as a hoarse voice. By means of appropriate image processing techniques, the vocal fold dynamics are extracted from digital high-speed videos. This study addresses the approach to obtain a parametric description of the spatio-temporal characteristics of the vocal fold oscillations for the aim of classification. For this purpose a biomechanical vocal fold model is introduced. An automatic optimization procedure is developed for fitting the model dynamics to the observed vocal fold oscillations. Thus, the resulting parameter values represent a specific vibration pattern and serve as an objective quantification measure. Performance and reliability of the optimization procedure are validated with synthetically generated data sets. The high-speed videos of two normal voice subjects and six patients suffering from different voice disorders are processed. The resulting model parameters represent a rough approximation of physiological parameters along the entire vocal folds.

Spatio-temporal quantification of vocal fold vibrations using high-speed videoendoscopy and a biomechanical model

Large eddy simulation (LES)-based computational aeroacoustics techniques were applied to a static model of the human glottis, idealized here as a planar channel with an orifice, to study flow-acoustic interactions related to speech. Rigid models of both converging and diverging glottal passages, each featuring a 20deg included angle and a minimal glottal diameter of 0.04cm, with an imposed transglottal pressure of 15cm H2O, were studied. The Favre-filtered compressible Navier-Stokes equations were integrated for this low-Mach-number flow using an additive semi-implicit Runge-Kutta method and a high-order compact finite-difference scheme with characteristic-based nonreflecting boundary conditions and a multiblock approach. Flow asymmetries related to the Coanda effect and transition to turbulence, as well as the far-field sound, were captured. Acoustic-analogy-based far-field sound predictions were compared with direct simulations and showed that dipole sources, arising from unsteady flow forces exerted on...

Numerical simulation of turbulence transition and sound radiation for flow through a rigid glottal model.

Vocal fold geometry plays an important role in human phonation. A wide range of inferior and superior vocal fold surface angles has been shown to be present during phonation [Nanayakkara, Master's thesis, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH (2005)]. This study explored how these angles affect pressure distributions on the vocal folds, and thus how they may affect phonation. The computational code FLUENT was used to obtain pressure distributions for laminar, incompressible flow. Eighteen inferior vocal fold surface angles and nineteen superior vocal fold surface angles were selected for three specific glottal angles, uniform 0 degrees, convergent 10 degrees, and divergent 10 degrees. Minimal glottal diameter (0.01 cm), transglottal pressure (8 cm H2O), and glottal entrance radius (0.15 cm) were held constant, and the glottal exit radius was constant for each glottal angle. Results suggest that the vocal fold surface pressures are independent of the inferior and superior vocal fold surface angles realistic for human phonation. These results suggest that, in contrast to the important effects of glottal entrance and exit radii, minimal diameter, and angle on intraglottal pressures, the inferior and superior vocal fold surface angles (excluding possible interactive effects with the false vocal folds) do not have an influence on the intraglottal pressures.

Numerical study of the effects of inferior and superior vocal fold surface angles on vocal fold pressure distributions.

Intraglottal pressure distributions depend upon glottal shape, size, and diameter. This study reports the effects of varying glottal angle on intraglottal and transglottal pressures using a three-dimensional Plexiglas™ model with a glottis having nine symmetric glottal angles and a constant minimal glottal diameter of 0.06cm. The empirical data were supported by computational results using FLUENT. The results suggested that (1) the greater the convergent glottal angle, the greater outward driving forces (higher intraglottal pressures) on the vocal folds; (2) flow resistance was greatest for the uniform glottis, and least for the 10° divergent glottis; (3) the greatest negative pressure in the glottis and therefore the greatest pressure recovery for diverging glottal shapes occurred for an angle of 10°; (4) the smaller the convergent angle, the greater the flow resistance; (5) FLUENT was highly accurate in predicting the empirical pressures of this model; (6) flow separation locations (given by FLUENT) for...

The effect of glottal angle on intraglottal pressure

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The effect of glottal angle on intraglottal pressure

Numerical study of the effects of inferior and superior vocal fold surface angles on vocal fold pressure distributions.