This paper surveys the field of augmented reality AR, in which 3D virtual objects are integrated into a 3D real environment in real time. It describes the medical, manufacturing, visualization, path planning, entertainment, and military applications that have been explored. This paper describes the characteristics of augmented reality systems, including a detailed discussion of the tradeoffs between optical and video blending approaches. Registration and sensing errors are two of the biggest problems in building effective augmented reality systems, so this paper summarizes current efforts to overcome these problems. Future directions and areas requiring further research are discussed. This survey provides a starting point for anyone interested in researching or using augmented reality.

/pdf/a-survey-of-augmented-reality-17irtaxt7z.pdf

A survey of augmented reality

The objective of this article is to provide scientists, engineers and clinicians with an up-to-date overview on the current state of development in the area of three-dimensional ultrasound (3-DUS) and to serve as a reference for individuals who wish to learn more about 3-DUS imaging. The sections will review the state of the art with respect to 3-DUS imaging, methods of data acquisition, analysis and display approaches. Clinical sections summarize patient research study results to date with discussion of applications by organ system. The basic algorithms and approaches to visualization of 3-D and 4-D ultrasound data are reviewed, including issues related to interactivity and user interfaces. The implications of recent developments for future ultrasound imaging/visualization systems are considered. Ultimately, an improved understanding of ultrasound data offered by 3-DUS may make it easier for primary care physicians to understand complex patient anatomy. Tertiary care physicians specializing in ultrasound can further enhance the quality of patient care by using high-speed networks to review volume ultrasound data at specialization centers. Access to volume data and expertise at specialization centers affords more sophisticated analysis and review, further augmenting patient diagnosis and treatment.

Three-dimensional ultrasound imaging

3-D freehand ultrasound is a new imaging technique that is rapidly finding clinical applications. A position-sensing device is attached to a conventional ultrasound probe so that, as B-scans are acquired, they can be labelled with their relative positions and orientations. This allows a 3-D data set to be constructed from the B-scans. A key requirement of all freehand imaging systems is calibration; that is, determining the position and orientation of the B-scan with respect to the position sensor. This is typically a lengthy and tedious process that may need repeating every time a sensor is mounted on a probe. This paper describes a new calibration technique that takes only a few minutes to perform and produces results that compare favourably (in terms of both accuracy and precision) with previously published alternatives.

Rapid calibration for 3-D freehand ultrasound

We compare two technological approaches to augmented reality for 3-D medical visualization: optical and video see-through devices. We provide a context to discuss the technology by reviewing several medical applications of augmented-reality re search efforts driven by real needs in the medical field, both in the United States and in Europe. We then discuss the issues for each approach, optical versus video, from both a technology and human-factor point of view. Finally, we point to potentially promising future developments of such devices including eye tracking and multifocus planes capabilities, as well as hybrid optical/video technology.

/pdf/optical-versus-video-see-through-head-mounted-displays-in-lvskg46osj.pdf

Optical Versus Video See-Through Head-Mounted Displays in Medical Visualization

A real-time structured light depth extraction system includes a projector for projecting structured light patterns onto an object of interest. A camera positioned off-axis from the projector samples light reflected from the object synchronously with the projection of structured light patterns and outputs digital signals indicative of the reflected light. An image processor/controller receives the digital signals from the camera and processes the digital signals to extract depth information of the object in real time.

Methods and systems for real-time structured light depth extraction and endoscope using real-time structured light depth extraction

Augmented reality systems with see-through headmounted displays have been used primarily for applications that are possible with today's computational capabilities. We explore possibilities for a particular application-in-place, real-time 3D ultrasound visualization-without concern for such limitations. The question is not "How well could we currently visualize the fetus in real time," but "How well could we see the fetus if we had sufficient compute power?" Our video sequence shows a 3D fetus within a pregnant woman's abdomen-the way this would look to a HMD user. Technical problems in making the sequence are discussed. This experience exposed limitations of current augmented reality systems; it may help define the capabilities of future systems needed for applications as demanding as real-time medical visualization. >

Observing a volume rendered fetus within a pregnant patient

This paper describes VOL2, an interactive general-purpose volume renderer based on ray casting and implemented on Pixel-Planes 5, a distributed-memory, message-passing multicomputer. VOL2 is a pipelined renderer using image-space task parallelism and object-space data partitioning. We describe the parallelization and load balancing techniques used in order to achieve interactive response and near-real-time frame rates. We also present a number of applications for our system and derive some general conclusions about operation of image-order rendering algorithms on message-passing multicomputers.

/pdf/interactive-volume-visualization-on-a-heterogeneous-message-47ldsu4d7f.pdf

Interactive volume visualization on a heterogeneous message-passing multicomputer

We describe the VISTAnet gigabit testbed's visualization system, a parallel, interactive, multimodal renderer implemented on the Pixel-Planes 5 graphics engine. The system displays multiple superimposed data sets characterizing a 3D radiation treatment scenario. Its features are designed to facilitate comprehension of spatial relationships among geometrically complex anatomy and radiation dose structures. The algorithms and visualization options of this mature system are general and should be useful for other applications. The VISTAnet system is currently in clinical evaluation.

/pdf/interactive-multimodal-volume-visualization-for-a-2e00i1txro.pdf

Interactive Multimodal Volume Visualization for a Distributed Radiation- Treatment Planning Simulator

Augmented reality systems with see-through head-mounted displays have been used primarily for applications that are possible with today's computational capabilities We explore possibilities for a particular application---in-place, real-time 3D ultrasound visualization---without concern for such limitations The question is not "How well could we currently visualize the fetus in real time," but "How well could we see the fetus if we had sufficient compute power?"Our video sequence shows a 3D fetus within a pregnant woman's abdomen---the way this would look to a HMD user Technical problems in making the sequence are discussed This experience exposed limitations of current augmented reality systems; it may help define the capabilities of future systems needed for applications as demanding as real-time medical visualization

/pdf/case-study-observing-a-volume-rendered-fetus-within-a-2welc0gr96.pdf

Case study: observing a volume rendered fetus within a pregnant patient

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Observing a volume rendered fetus within a pregnant patient

Interactive volume visualization on a heterogeneous message-passing multicomputer

Interactive Multimodal Volume Visualization for a Distributed Radiation- Treatment Planning Simulator

Case study: observing a volume rendered fetus within a pregnant patient