Plasmonic colours are structural colours that emerge from resonant interactions between light and metallic nanostructures. The engineering of plasmonic colours is a promising, rapidly emerging research field that could have a large technological impact. We highlight basic properties of plasmonic colours and recent nanofabrication developments, comparing technology-performance indicators for traditional and nanophotonic colour technologies. The structures of interest include diffraction gratings, nanoaperture arrays, thin films, and multilayers and structures that support Mie resonances and whispering-gallery modes. We discuss plasmonic colour nanotechnology based on localized surface plasmon resonances, such as gap plasmons and hybridized disk–hole plasmons, which allow for colour printing with sub-diffraction resolution. We also address a range of fabrication approaches that enable large-area printing and nanoscale lithography compatible with complementary metal-oxide semiconductor technologies, including nanoimprint lithography and self-assembly. Finally, we review recent developments in dynamically reconfigurable plasmonic colours and in the laser-induced post-processing of plasmonic colour surfaces. Plasmonic colours can be used to colour large surfaces, can be mass-produced and dynamically reconfigured, and can provide sub-diffraction resolution. In this Review, basic properties of plasmonic colours, different platforms supporting them and recent developments in the field are discussed.

Plasmonic colour generation

In the wake of intense research on metamaterials the two-dimensional analogue, known as metasurfaces, has attracted progressively increasing attention in recent years due to the ease of fabrication and smaller insertion losses, while enabling an unprecedented control over spatial distributions of transmitted and reflected optical fields. Metasurfaces represent optically thin planar arrays of resonant subwavelength elements that can be arranged in a strictly or quasi periodic fashion, or even in an aperiodic manner, depending on targeted optical wavefronts to be molded with their help. This paper reviews a broad subclass of metasurfaces, viz. gradient metasurfaces, which are devised to exhibit spatially varying optical responses resulting in spatially varying amplitudes, phases and polarizations of scattered fields. Starting with introducing the concept of gradient metasurfaces, we present classification of different metasurfaces from the viewpoint of their responses, differentiating electrical-dipole, geometric, reflective and Huygens' metasurfaces. The fundamental building blocks essential for the realization of metasurfaces are then discussed in order to elucidate the underlying physics of various physical realizations of both plasmonic and purely dielectric metasurfaces. We then overview the main applications of gradient metasurfaces, including waveplates, flat lenses, spiral phase plates, broadband absorbers, color printing, holograms, polarimeters and surface wave couplers. The review is terminated with a short section on recently developed nonlinear metasurfaces, followed by the outlook presenting our view on possible future developments and perspectives for future applications.

Gradient metasurfaces: a review of fundamentals and applications.

Plasmonic colour printing based on engineered metasurfaces has revolutionized colour display science due to its unprecedented subwavelength resolution and high-density optical data storage. However, advanced plasmonic displays with novel functionalities including dynamic multicolour printing, animations, and highly secure encryption have remained in their infancy. Here we demonstrate a dynamic plasmonic colour display technique that enables all the aforementioned functionalities using catalytic magnesium metasurfaces. Controlled hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of the constituent magnesium nanoparticles, which serve as dynamic pixels, allow for plasmonic colour printing, tuning, erasing and restoration of colour. Different dynamic pixels feature distinct colour transformation kinetics, enabling plasmonic animations. Through smart material processing, information encoded on selected pixels, which are indiscernible to both optical and scanning electron microscopies, can only be read out using hydrogen as a decoding key, suggesting a new generation of information encryption and anti-counterfeiting applications. Here Duanet al. demonstrate dynamic plasmonic colour displays using catalytic magnesium metasurfaces. Controlled hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of the constituent nanoparticles, which serve as dynamic pixels, allow plasmonic colour printing, tuning, erasing, restoration of colour and encoding of information.

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Dynamic plasmonic colour display.

Recently, color generation in resonant nanostructures have been intensively studied. Despite of their exciting progresses, the structural colors are usually generated by the plasmonic resonances of metallic nanoparticles. Due to the inherent plasmon damping, such plasmonic nanostructures are usually hard to create very distinct color impressions. Here we utilize the concept of metasurfaces to produce all-dielectric, low-loss, and high-resolution structural colors. We have fabricated TiO2 metasurfaces with electron-beam lithography and a very simple lift-off process. The optical characterizations showed that the TiO2 metasurfaces with different unit sizes could generate high reflection peaks at designed wavelengths. The maximal reflectance was as high as 64% with full width at half-maximum (fwhm) around 30 nm. Consequently, distinct colors have been observed in bright field and the generated colors covered the entire visible spectral range. The detailed numerical analysis shows that the distinct colors wer...

All-Dielectric Full-Color Printing with TiO2 Metasurfaces

Noble metal nanoparticles due to their unique optical properties arising from their interactions with an incident light have been intensively employed in a broad range of applications. This review comprehensively describes fundamentals behind plasmonics, used to develop applications in the fields of biomedical, energy, and information technologies. Basic concepts (electromagnetic interaction and permittivity of metals) are discussed through Mie theory presented as the main model for interpreting phenomena of optical absorption and scattering. The effects of near-field enhancement, shape, composition, and surrounding medium of nanoparticles on optical properties are described in detail. The review explores and identifies the potential of plasmonic nanoparticles based on their optical properties (e.g., light absorption, scattering, and field enhancement) for developing different applications (biomedical, energy and information technologies). Due to a significant impact of plasmonic nanoparticles on medicine and healthcare products and technologies, the review initially focuses on biomedical applications extensively benefited from optical features of these nanoparticles. Advantages of the optical properties outstandingly implemented are also briefly discussed in other applications, including energy and information technologies. This review concisely summarizes the explored areas based on plasmonic properties, compares advantages of plasmonic nanoparticles over other types of nanomaterials and highlights challenges.

Optical Properties and Applications of Plasmonic-Metal Nanoparticles

Metallic nanostructures can be designed to effectively reflect different colors at deep-subwavelength scales. Such color manipulation is attractive for applications such as subwavelength color printing; however, challenges remain in creating saturated colors with a general and intuitive design rule. Here, we propose a simple design approach based on all-aluminum gap-plasmonic nanoantennas, which is capable of designing colors using knowledge of the optical properties of the individual antennas. We demonstrate that the individual-antenna properties that feature strong light absorption at two distinct frequencies can be encoded into a single subwavelength-pixel, enabling the creation of saturated colors, as well as a dark color in reflection, at the optical diffraction limit. The suitability of the designed color pixels for subwavelength printing applications is demonstrated by showing microscopic letters in color, the incident polarization and angle insensitivity, and color durability. Coupled with the low...

Full-Color Subwavelength Printing with Gap-Plasmonic Optical Antennas

Passive cooling technology has great impact on applications of solar cells [1] and buildings [2-4]. Since several decades ago, researchers have proposed passive radiative cooling sky radiator and successfully achieved temperature below ambient air in different circumstances, e.g. at nighttime [2], in diffused sunlight [3] or under direct sunlight [4]. However, plain sky radiator has relative low efficiency in application, e.g., proper storage of food or medicine, because only one emissive surface is an underutilization of all surfaces in three-dimensional situation. In this study, three-dimensional high emissivity metasurface-based sky radiator and auxiliary heat mirror are proposed. This combination can emit radiation from all surfaces. Sky radiator is composed of embedded metal-insulator-metal emitter (EMIME); auxiliary heat mirror utilizes perfect reflective metal. On one hand, EMIME is composed of 490 nm ultrathin embedded copper disks-amorphous silicon (a-Si) -copper layers (Fig. 1 (a)). In the design of metasurface, it is necessary to exploit high thermal conductivity metal (copper) and high refractive index insulator (a-Si) in atmospheric transmittance window (8-13 μm). The angular and polarization dependence of emissivity of EMIME are calculated by finite difference time domain method (FDTD). Simulation results show polarization independence, excellent wavelength selectivity and omni-directional high emissivity between 8-13 μm. In design, eight types of disks with different diameters (800-1360 nm) are utilized to expand emissive bandwidth (Fig. 1 (b)). In addition, a surrounding metal heat mirror can reflect thermal radiation perfectly by optimizing radius of inverted frustum of cone shell. In the case of cylindrical sky radiator, this combination enables emissive radiation to propagate into atmosphere, especially on side surfaces of EMIME (Fig. 1(c)).Besides, heat mirror configurations can efficiently eliminate absorption of incident thermal radiation from atmosphere (more than 90% radiation is reflected back by optimization), resulting from mirror shape and specular reflection of smooth surface. In thermal radiation analysis, ray tracing method is utilized to trace every bundle of ray trajectories, which calculates the direction of thermal radiation at any time. Corresponding bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is calculated by discrete transfer method. The entire analysis shows lower temperature distribution comparing with plain surface, and it is very promising to achieve an energy efficient passive cooling or refrigeration device under both nocturnal and diurnal diffused sunlight circumstances.

Metasurface-based three dimensional sky radiator and auxiliary heat mirror

A metal-insulator-metal (MIM) structure is a fundamental plasmonic structure that has been studied widely since the
early stage of plasmonics. It enables us to confine surface plasmon polariton (SPP) and concentrate light into nano-space
beyond the diffraction limit. A finite-length MIM structure is considered to be a Fabry-Perot resonator of SPP as a
nanocavity. Here, we review our recent studies about active metasurface based on a reconfigurable metal-air-metal
(MAM) nanocavity which modify reflection or absorption spectra in scattering by changing a gap distance. Such
reconfigurable MAM nanocavity becomes promising candidate for various applications such as plasmonic color or sky
radiator from visible to infrared range.

Passive and active metasurface based on metal-insulator-metal structures

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Full-Color Subwavelength Printing with Gap-Plasmonic Optical Antennas

Metasurface-based three dimensional sky radiator and auxiliary heat mirror

Passive and active metasurface based on metal-insulator-metal structures